Discussion of Dance for Life Program Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Discussion of Dance for Life Program - Essay Example The 40 different weekly sessions involved in the program have drawn an initial 1,500 people in the first year to its current 20,000. Most of the people involved are under 18 and almost half come from minority ethnic communities. Classes in Dance For Life include salsa, street dance, modern dance and dance exercise, as well as others. (Dance for Life). The program has only been funded for three years but Middleton has gotten the support of many civic groups and has the program running strong. Their website discusses their objectives in detail, which include their focus on empowering young people to deal with obesity and stress. In addition to these weekly classes, Dance For Life has a professional dance group, Stance, that has workshops in the Bradford District at schools and youth groups. This company of 5 dancers have arrangements that "talk" about social issues including bullying, communication and how they feel "living in their own skin" (Dance for Life). Teachers comments have included: "Children all enjoyed the workshops and were fully engaged throughout" and "Excellent performance - pupils totally absorbed". The kids involved have commented positively as well. The following is an example of the classe s offered: 1. Asian Women's Exercise Women only; informal classes run by Dance for Life for Asian women; Thursday mornings at Attock Community Association 2. Belly Dancing @ Cafe West Informal classes run by Dance for Life for children and young people; Thursday evenings at Cafe West, Allerton 3. Breakdance for Children and Young People Informal classes run by Dance for Life for children and young people; YMCA, Little Horton 4. Classes for Children and Young People Informal classes run by Dance for Life for children and young people; various times and locations throughout the Bradford area 5. Contemporary Dance Informal classes run by Dance for Life; Tuesday evenings at Bradford College Using multiple agencies as support has been one of Middleton's primary efforts, and has organizations such as the Health Improvement Fund, the Children's Fund, the Bradford Council and other community service groups included. A common agenda among these groups is disease prevention and health education of the public, especially about non-communicable diseases that have surpassed communicable disease in global mortality (Scriven 2003:2). A new public health agenda in the UK has emerged and building multi-professional understanding and capabilities has become crucial to the success of their programs. Health promotion The whole idea of health promotion was only coined in the 1970's and has loosely been explained as a confluence of "health education, self-care movements, public health, preventative medicine and the women's movement" (Scriven 2003:1). But defining health promotion has brought about many different points of views from egalitarian to radical politics. In the article by Scriven, health promotion is called "the radical militant wing" of public health. There are four types of health promotion (Scriven 2003:6). The primary level focuses all of its energy toward the

Descriptive Statistics Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Descriptive Statistics - Case Study Example To this extent, there is not aspect of descriptive statistics that is missing since both measures of central tendency and spread are used in the study (Dellinger & Kresnow, 2010). The minorities who are included in the study are defined by their age. The study accommodated views of minors up to a minimal age of 5 years. This was based on the realization that a child of age 5 would be informed on how to wear and use a helmet when cycling. The demographic data to this effect is available in the study given that an estimated 1,725 (75%) of the children had ridden on a bicycle. Descriptive statistics is essential in this study as it allows for the summary of the data using techniques such as tables and graphical representations; thus, allowing for easy statistical commentary (Dellinger & Kresnow, 2010). The inferential statistics of the study are test of hypotheses in which the study’s hypothesis was that bicycle-related injuries among children between 5-14 years can be condensed by the usage of helmets. Subsequently, the study uses sample statistics as an inferential test to sample out a representative number of respondents for the study. This is done through the estimation of the parameters of the study. Standard t-tests are also used to examine the differences in behavior of children in wearing helmets. The p-values identified in the study are correspondent to the objectives of the study. At p

Obesity in Childhood with Regard to Nutrition

Obesity in Childhood with Regard to Nutrition Obesity is a term used in medical in which body accumulates an extra amount of fats; gathered to the degree that it may have a negative impact on health. It leads to reduce the life expectancy or expanded health issues. Risks of diseases and health issues increase due to obesity in the form of heart problem, high blood pressure and diabetes. Stoutness or obesity builds the probability of different diseases, especially coronary illness, diabetes, obstructive slumber apnea, certain sorts of growth and osteoarthritis. Stoutness is most normally initiated by a mix of inordinate nourishment energy consumption, absence of physical action, and hereditary defenselessness, in spite of the fact that a couple of cases are brought about principally by genes, endocrine issue, and drugs or psychiatric. Evidence to help the view that some hefty people take less food yet they gain weight because of a moderate digestion system is constrained. Normal fat individuals have more excellent vitality or energy consumption than their slight partners because of the vitality needed to keep an enhanced figure mass (Obesity). Reasons of Obesity in children due to Nourishment The most evident reason for overweight during childhood as it is in mature and adults are vitality unevenness between calories expended and consumed. Stationary lifestyle and imbalanced sustenance and nourishment support the increment in overweight kids. Scientists estimated modifying systems in newborn children and youthful kids, a trans generational nature of heftiness customizing. This implies that fat moms and the individuals who put on exorbitant weight increase throughout pregnancy by one means or another incline their youngsters towards getting overweight themselves. Once settled in the populace, the expanded danger of stoutness or obesity may proliferate from era to era (Katz). Diet of Children Throughout the most recent decades affordability of food and nourishment has much increased to bigger amounts of individuals as the cost of buying food has diminished generously in respect to income and the idea of food has transformed from a method of sustenance to a marker of lifestyle and a wellspring of joy. Plainly, builds in physical action are not liable to balance a vitality rich, poor nutritive eating regimen. It takes between 1–2 hours of to a great degree overwhelming movement to check a solitary expansive measured (i.e., >=785 kcal) kids supper at a quick nourishment restaurant. Regular utilization of such an eating regimen can scarcely be balanced by the normal youngster or mature person (Zieve, 2011). Unhealthy Eating Habits With the progression of time children have changed their dietary patterns to a considerable measure of degree. Children are consuming a great deal of bad nourishment that is expanding fats in their physique. Utilization of quick and fast food is expanding step by step which incorporate cheeseburgers, pizzas and other quick nourishment things. This sustenance is enjoyed in entire United States of America regardless of sex and age. In the consequence everyone who utilizes this fast food in excess is casualty of fatness. This fast food is unhygienic for everybody who utilizes it (Obesity in Children). Intake of Calories In spite of the fact that obesity and overweight are basically thought to be the consequences of expansion in caloric intake there is insufficient supporting confirmation for such sensation. Nourishment recurrence strategies measure common eating regimen, however gauge caloric intake defectively. Different strategies, for example, 24-hour review or nourishment journals assess caloric intakes all the more precisely however it does not take into consideration the long term intake. All out vitality admission is troublesome to measure correctly at a populace level. Be that as it may, a little caloric awkwardness (inside the wiggle room of estimation techniques) is sufficient over a long time of time to prompt obesity. With simultaneous ascent in adolescence obesity pervasiveness in the USA, the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) noted just unobtrusive change in calorie intake around US kids from the 1970s to 1988–1994. For this period, NHANES III discovered an expansion calorie allow just around white and dark juvenile females. The same example was seen by the most recent NHANES (1999–2000). The Bogalusa study which has been taking after the health and sustenance of kids since 1973 in Bogalusa (Louisiana), reported that aggregate intake calorie of 10-year old children remained unaltered throughout 1973–1988 and a slight yet critical reduction was watched when intake of energy was communicated for every kilogram form weight. The consequence of an overview did throughout the past few decades in the UK prescribed that normal intake of energy, for all age aggregations, are easier than they used to be. Some little studies additionally discovered comparable vitality admission around fat kids and their thin counterparts (Zieve, 2011). Fat intake For a long time it has been argued that the increment in pediatric obesity has happened in light of an expansion in high fat taking, conflicting effects have been acquired by cross-sectional and longitudinal studies. The principle complaint to the idea that dietary fat is answerable for the quickened pediatric obesity plague is the way that in the meantime the commonness of adolescence obesity was expanding; the utilization of dietary fat in distinctive population was diminishing. Despite the fact that fat consumed in overabundance prompts obesity, there is not solid enough confirmation that the intake of fat is the core purpose behind the rising pattern of obesity during the childhood (Staff, 2013). Other nourishment factors There is a developing proof recommending that escalating consumption of dairy products by something like two servings for every day could decrease the danger of overweight by up to 70%. Moreover intake of calcium was connected with 21% lessened danger of improvement of insulin safety around overweight children and may lessen diabetes hazard. Higher calcium consumption and more dairy servings for every day were connected with lessened adiposity in youngsters in accordance with the longitudinal study (Overweight and Obesity, 2014). There is less information reporting the connection between calcium or dairy consumption and obesity around the children. However it is possible that drinking soda in the place of milk would cause in grater intake of aggregate energy, it cant be finished up authoritatively that soft drink containing sugar result in increasing weight gain on the grounds that these items dislodge dairy items (Mahshid, Noori, Anwar, 2005). Conclusion: Obesity in the childhood due to nourishment is continuously increasing which is an alarming situation. It is because of the wrong intake of food. Children are more inclined to eating the fast food like burger, pizza and other products like this which cause the obesity in the childhood which further result in many health issues like heart diseases, diabetes and high blood pressure. Products containing more fat and calorie are also the reason of increasing obesity in the children. Dairy products are also becoming the reason of obesity. Bibliography Katz, D. L. (n.d.). Childhood Obesity. Retrieved from liebertpub: http://www.liebertpub.com/overview/childhood-obesity/384/ M. D., N. A., Anwar. (2005). hildhood obesity, prevalence and prevention. Nutrition Journal , 24. Obesity. (n.d.). Retrieved from who.int: http://www.who.int/topics/obesity/en/ Obesity in Children. (n.d.). Retrieved from webmd: http://www.webmd.com/children/guide/obesity-children Overweight and Obesity. ( 2014, February 24). Retrieved from cdc.gov: http://www.cdc.gov/obesity/ Staff, M. C. ( 2013, June 07). Diseases and Conditions Obesity. Retrieved from mayoclinic.org: http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/obesity/basics/definition/con-20014834 Zieve, D. (2011, September 9). Obesity in children. Retrieved from nlm.nih.gov: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/007508.htm

President Bill Clintons Impeachment :: William Jefferson Clinton Essays

Clinton's Impeachment In 1998 the American public was riveted by headlines detailing the private sexual encounters of our president and a White House employee. For the first time in US history, a sitting president had every aspect of his personal life presented to the public for debate. As the smoke cleared, discussions began to question what trend had allowed the media to print such sordid details about our top elected official. Suddenly, our Commander in Chiefs private life warranted front-page news. What gave us the right to invade his privacy? The theories presented to answer this question blame everything from technology to a lack of morality. Many feel the information age has allowed the public such a high degree of exposure to headline news-bites that the competition for an original, attention grabbing story has forced the media to dig deeper to hold public interest. Others say the success of tabloid media in the late eighties and early nineties is to blame. They proved that scandal sells. Political analysts believe Clinton can only blame himself. During his first campaign he answered personal questions openly and with amusement. Even an extrinsic question about his choice of underwear was acceptable. GOP leadership would have us believe it is a conspiracy lead by the Republican Party in an attempt to gain control of the White House. Religious leaders think American morality has sunk so low that all this news of scandal has just become perverse entertainment. Journalists in an attempt to justify the story wil l argue it is our right to know. It would be reasonable to assume that each of these factors contributed to the end result. It may be necessary to look into the history books to find the root cause for this. We know from biographies written about former presidents that there were very few who can claim they had nothing to hide. In contrast with the current trend there was actually very little scandalous press written during their respective terms. Harry Truman was the harbinger of change. He almost lost his bid for re-election when some of the countries most respected newspapers printed allegations, based mostly on rumor, that he was involved in the corrupt politics of Thomas Pendergast. This was a departure from the term of James Garfield in 1881.

Lord of the Flies †Character Analysis: Piggy Essay

Examine the significance of the character Piggy in the novel â€Å"Lord of The Flies† consider his purpose, key role and relationship with the other boys at important points in the novel. To mimic men’s actions and lost of civility in times of war and need, William Golding, narrates a story in which all characters are boys, with the intention of taking the reader through the journey made by those who descend to savagery when facing certain conditions. This essay is going to explore and explain the symbolism behind one of the novel’s main characters and how his presence influences other characters’ actions and the way things turn out. Piggy is a Short and heavyset boy who wears spectacles and is disadvantaged by asthma. At first he appears to be a desperate childish boy by panicking over the rest of the world’s lack of information regarding his and the boys’ whereabouts, – while the others see this as an opportunity to be free and independent – which makes him seem like a dependable, desperate young boy. However, as the story unfolds we come to understand that his worrying at the beginning is related to his analytical way of thinking. And even though the other boys put him down due to his physical appearance, we come to learn how necessary he is on the island as a source of intelligence and insight. Due to his unfortunate looks and his nickname, the boys on the island refuse on sympathizing with Piggy and collectively make fun of him, making him an outcast – â€Å"The boys were a circle of sympathy with Piggy outside†. Bullied and brutalized by Jack, he maturely shields away the mocking and focuses on increasing their chances of being rescued and meanwhile living in an organized environment. However, as soon as his intellectual side starts to show, and his critical thinking becomes a crucial part in assembling a new community, – â€Å"I expect we’ll want to know all their names,† said the fat boy, â€Å"and make a list. We ought to have a meeting. † – he slowly begins being accepted. His clever ideas introduce important concepts to the rest of the boys. For example, the use of the conch: the power to speak and be heard given to whoever held it in hands. The way he thinks endears him especially to Ralph who starts to admire him. â€Å"Piggy rubbed his glasses slowly and thought. When he understood how far Ralph had gone towards accepting him he flushed pinkly with pride. †- Thankful for being accepted, Piggy shows loyalty and respect for Ralph. At a certain point, Ralph questions his leadership skills and compares himself to Piggy who stands up for him – â€Å"You said Ralph was chief and you don’t give him time to think. Then when he says something you rush off†. He protects Ralph and reminds the others that they all collectively chose him to be their leader. Once again, Piggy shows he hasn’t lost his values and instincts. Although he might not entirely fit in with the others, he manages to get his point across with Ralph’s help. His ideas frequently lead to innovation and his way of thinking is what gets them by the first stages of civilized survival. He represents democracy by presenting his ideals to the others and hoping to come to a mutual agreement on the way of executing things; and clings onto civility throughout the whole novel, by pointing out whenever one of the other boys take a step away from civilization. Underestimated by many at the beginning, Piggy’s role in the story carries a very important meaning and stands for great attributes found in men. The sensible understanding of reality shown by the character stands for the rational scientific side of civilization. His maturity differentiates him from the others – â€Å"With the martyred expression of a parent who has to keep up with the senseless ebullience of the children† – and becomes essential in avoiding savagery and barbaric behavior from the boys. His character is related to a great part of the symbolism used by Golding and has a very important role in preventing the descent from civilization to savagery, however, he sadly he witnesses the turnover. Piggy’s glasses represent many different ideas. The initial importance of the specs is that they represent the ability to make fire, which they hoped would provide the rescue they needed. Piggy’s glasses also signify Piggy’s ability to see literally and figuratively. Without them, he is helpless and blind. He is unable to serve as well as Ralph’s right-hand man and voice of logic. When Piggy is â€Å"blinded† it symbolizes the blindness of the Jack’s tribe to the evil to which they are succumbing. Piggy’s murder completes the boys’ lost of sight (figuratively speaking) and forces them into total darkness, which leads to the hunting of Ralph. When his glasses are broken and he tragically dies, so does what is left of order and civilization in the island. Of all the forms of symbolism present in the book, Piggy’s character carries a relation to many of them. To being with, his nickname isn’t only related to his physical structure, but it also suggests vulnerability, like the pigs on the island that rapidly become Jack’s targets. Another important symbolic element related to Piggy is the conch he and Ralph found at the start of the novel. They used it to call the boys and assemble them. After the conch is crashed along with his body, the boys divide themselves representing the loss of the civilized instinct once present in each and every boy. Piggy is significant in the novel not only because he is one of the main characters, but also because his purpose is directly related to the main theme of the story: civilization vs. savagery. Although he wasn’t able to make the concept of civilization permanent, he spends the whole novel trying to get his values across, and reminding the others of who they were and how they were expected to behave. His intelligence gives him the voice of sanity and reason.

What is steaming (food)?

Steaming is a cooking method that uses the steam from water under varying degrees of pressure. Low pressure cooking is food cooked either direct contact with the steam or an indirect contact. High pressure steaming, on the other hand is done when steam is not allowed to escape the cooking equipment that increases the temperature and pressure build-up that reduces cooking time. 2. What is a bamboo steamer?A bamboo steamer is a round wooden cookware made from bamboo with a lattice for a bottom and a snug top. It is placed on a wok or a pan with water and the food is cooked inside the bamboo steamer. It can also be stacked on top of one another to enable food to be cooked simultaneously. The holes under the bamboo steamer are what cook the food inside of it in low pressure cooking. 3. Brief history of bamboo steam in Asia? The first bamboo steamer was developed in China where ovens are not a common sight.In Asian cuisine, as opposed to Western cuisine, rice, not bread is their staple, a nd therefore, the idea of using an oven is not a common one. As a substitute, to be able to cook their breads, they developed the steamer which is commonly used in cooking steamed cakes such as the siopao. 4. Healthy and Efficient Advantages of steamed food with a Bamboo Steamer As already stated earlier, the bamboo steamer can be stacked on top of one another making cooking large amounts of food more quickly to accomplish.It is also designed to fit in any wok and could also fit in pans so no special equipment is needed to use them. The bamboo also helps to absorb excess moisture to keep the food from becoming soggy and retains heat. Health benefits of cooking with a bamboo steamer include being able to cook the food without using any sort of fat, oils, or butter, retaining its healthy properties and appears fresh and vibrant, and its naturally antibacterial properties. 5.How to care for your bamboo steamer? In cleaning the bamboo steamer, mild soap should be used along with warm wa ter to prevent any damages. After washing, the bamboo steamer should be thoroughly drained and dried before it is put away to prevent molds from accumulating. Also, bamboo steamers should never be put in the dishwasher and as much as possible, direct food to steamer contact should be avoided (this can be done with the use of parchment paper or lettuce).Removing food bits that get stuck to the steamer should be removed with a nylon scrubber 6. Other uses for bamboo steamer (favor box, centerpiece†¦)? Uses for the bamboo steamer include: †¢ Centerpiece †¢ Dim Sum and Food Steaming †¢ Tamales †¢ Pie Carrier †¢ Gift Box †¢ Wedding Favors †¢ Heating food †¢ Steam-Dye Fabrics †¢ Pet Treat Basket †¢ Food Basket Reference: http://www. gourmetsleuth. com/Articles/Unique-Cooking-Tools-641/bamboo-steamer. aspx http://www. wisegeek. com/what-are-bamboo-steamers. htm

Overview of the Uk Transport System Essay Example

Overview of the Uk Transport System Essay Example Overview of the Uk Transport System Essay Overview of the Uk Transport System Essay OVERVIEW OF THE UK TRANSPORT SYSTEM With an integrated system of airports, seaports, rail and road, businesses located in the UK can select the optimal method of moving people and freight between major cities and locations, both within the UK and internationally. The main advantages of the UK transport system include: o Excellent air links to locations all over the world from world-class international airports. o An advanced and comprehensive road system that links all locations throughout the UK. o A privatised rail network linking all locations across the UK and, through the Channel Tunnel, all locations in mainland Europe. Over 100 seaports across the UK, handling the largest volume of seaport traffic in Europe. Private (Cars Motorcycle) Most people in UK travel by car. About 75% of households have at least one car. Motorcycling is popular in UK, both as a means of transport and as a pastime with over one million motorcyclists. A full motorcycle licence can be obtained at the ag e of 17 after passing a test. Public 1. Road The UK has an advanced and comprehensive road transport system, with a total of 394,000 kilometres of roads. There are almost 3,600 kilometres of motorways, all of which are toll-free except for the M6 Toll adjacent to the M6 in Birmingham. Roads and motorways are UKs primary domestic transport routes. The roads are divided up between major and minor roads. a. Taxi Cab We can stop taxis in the street or hire them at a taxi rank. We can also book minicabs by telephoning their office. Taxis have a meter that works out the fare, which is based on how long a journey takes. Minicabs often do not have a meter and are sometimes cheaper. The most famous taxi has to be the black cabs taxi service in London. Black cabs, also known as hackney carriages or hackney cabs, with the for hire sign lit. b. Buses Public transport in the UK is well developed with local bus services throughout the country. In Great Britain, bus services are generally privately owned. In Northern Ireland they are state-owned and operated by  Translink. Discount fares are often available for young people, students and pensioners. Decker United Kingdom has single Decker and double Decker buses. The red double-decker buses in  London  have become a  national symbol  of England. Double-decker buses are in common use throughout the  United Kingdom, and have been favoured over articulated buses by many operators because of the shorter length of double-deckers. We can find them in towns and cities. The main places a bus goes to are shown on the front of the bus. You pay the driver when you go in. On single-deckers you sometimes buy your ticket from a machine in the bus. Most London buses have a conductor who will come round and collect fares. One way of seeing cities major sight is on an open-top double-decker bus. Tickets are valid for 24 hours and allow unlimited ‘hop on/ hop off’ travel. Coaches Coaches travel longer distances, are more comfortable, have separate compartments for luggage and do not stop as frequently as Decker buses. We use coaches for travelling longer distances or for going on school outings. You must buy a ticket before boarding the buses, there are ticket machines at most bus stops/ stations. Bus routes are identified by numbers and sometimes letters. Buses display their number in large digits at the front, side, and rear of the bus. 2. Rail The  railway system of  United Kingdom is the oldest in the world. The UK has the  18th largest railway network in the world  and one of the busiest railways  in Europe. a. Trams Tram is a vehicle which runs on fixed rails and is designed to travel on streets, sharing road space with other traffic and pedestrians. Most tram systems are on reserved tracks (fully segregated alignments), with only short stretches of on-street running. The tracks that a tram runs on are called a tramway; the system itself can be called a tramway system. Tram systems use lightweight vehicles, which operate at lower speeds than onventional rail vehicles. There are eight tramway/ lightrail systems in the UK; in Croydon, London, Birmingham, Manchester, Sheffield, Newcastle, Nottingham and Blackpool. The stops or stations can be closer to the places they serve, and to other modes of transport at interchanges, than heavy rail routes. b. Light Rail The term light rail is used to describe railway opera tions using smaller vehicles which have a lower capacity and lower speed than conventional railways; light rail infrastructure is designed to be cheaper to build and maintain. Light rail is an intermediate transport mode, catering for short intra- and inter-urban journeys- stops are generally closer together than commuter railways but further apart than local bus routes. Light rail systems almost universally feature electric power, although there are a very small number of diesel light rail vehicles. c. Subway/ Metro Some light rail systems are referred to as Metros. Metro is a term which can be used to describe a high-frequency inter- or intra-urban railway system, which is entirely or largely separate from other main line railway operations. Metro systems feature sections of underground railway and underground stations. Metros can use either conventional heavy rail technology (heavy metro) or modern light rail technology (light metro). Underground railway systems operate in London, Glasgow, and Liverpool. An example in Britain of heavy metro would be the London Underground; examples in Britain of light metro are the Tyne and Wear Metro and the Docklands Light Railway. The London underground railway system (or tube, as it is known locally) is probably the quickest way of getting round the capital. Londons tube network covers the largest area of any underground rail system. The tube runs to all areas of central and greater London, connecting all mainline stations. 3. Air Transport The UK has the largest air transport system in Europe. Air transport is the most popular mode of transport for visitors both to and from the UK. Air transport in the United Kingdom  is the commercial carriage of passengers, freight and mail by aircraft. a. Airport The leading airports in the UK are: London Heathrow: the largest and busiest international airport in Europe and the third largest globally, handling over 65 million passengers a year. Ninety airlines fly to 179 destinations worldwide, operating an average of 1,250 flights a day. The airport is situated 15 miles west of London and has five terminals, terminal 5, used exclusively by  British Airways. London Gatwick: the busiest single-runway airport in the world, with over 32 million passengers handled each year. Ninety airlines fly to 213 different destinations, operating an average of over 700 flights a day. The Airport is situated 27 miles to the south of the city centre. Manchester Airport: the third largest airport in the UK, handling 22 million passengers each year. Over 100 airlines fly to 225 different destinations, operating an average of 600 flights a day. Other major international airports in the UK include Birmingham International, London Stansted, London Luton, Nottingham East Midlands, Glasgow, Edinburgh, Liverpool John Lennon Airport, Newcastle, Robin Hood Airport (Sheffield), Cardiff and Belfast International. b. Airlines Passengers The majority of all passengers travelling by air to or from the UK are carried by UK  airlines, British Airways, and easyJet. The most famous British aeroplanes of all time have to be the Comet and Concorde. Even now, Concorde excites much admired for its beautiful design. Just over a fifth of all terminal passengers are travelling on domestic routes only, whilst half are travelling between the UK and the rest of the  European Union. Just over a quarter of all passengers are travelling on business. 4. Water Transport The United Kingdom is home to a vast network of  waterways. These are navigable bodies of water in various forms such as  canals,  rivers  and  lakes. Natural rivers and lakes were the first waterways to be used for the transportation of people and goods. a. Canals The canals of the United Kingdom are a major part of the network of inland waterways in the United Kingdom. They have a colourful history, from use for irrigation and transport, through becoming the focus of the Industrial Revolution, to today’s role for recreational boating. b. Harbour/Ports The UK ports and harbours industry is one of the largest in Europe, with over 100 active ports operating across the UK. Major international ports such as Tilbury, Southampton, Immingham and Liverpool have container-handling facilities, so goods can be transferred efficiently to other ships, or road or rail transportation. Ports trading with continental Europe such as Dover, Portsmouth and Harwich all have well-developed roll-on/roll-off ferry services to allow goods and materials to be delivered by road. Other ports specialise in general cargo, passenger traffic and fishing. c. Ferries Passenger ferries are widely used for cross-Channel services. Ferries from the UK also sail to Scandinavia, Ireland and Britains various offshore islands. Roll-on/roll-off ferries carry road vehicles between ports in the UK and mainland Europe. These ferries are a fast and efficient way to ship road freight across the English Channel and North Sea. d. Cargo Ships General cargo ships are used for break-bulk and mixed-load cargoes. Specialised bulk carriers are the most efficient way to carry grain, minerals, coal and similar heavy goods. Bulk liquid tankers carry oil, liquefied gas, wine and other liquids. Dry-freight boxes carry every kind of dry product, from electrical equipment to clothing. There are also refrigerated containers, tank containers for carrying liquids and special containers for carrying non-standard cargoes.

Free Essays on Computer Crimes is Increasing

Computer Crime Is Increasing A report discussing the proposition that computer crime has increased dramatically over the last 10 years. Introduction Computer crime is generally defined as any crime accomplished through special knowledge of computer technology. Increasing instances of whites of these types of crimes are complex embezzlements that might occur over long periods of time, or when a computer operator uses a computer to steal or alter valuable information from an employer. Variety and Extent Since the first cases were reported in 1958, computers have been used for most kinds of crime, including fraud, theft, embezzlement, burglary, sabotage, espionage, murder, and forgery. One study of 1,500 computer crimes established that most of them were committed by trusted computer users within businesses i.e. persons with the requisite skills, knowledge, access, and resources. Much of known computer crime has consisted of entering false data into computers. This method of computer crime is simpler and safer than the complex process of writing a program to change data already in the computer. Now that personal computers with the ability to communicate by telephone are prevalent in our society, increasing numbers of crimes have been perpetrated b... Free Essays on Computer Crimes is Increasing Free Essays on Computer Crimes is Increasing Computer Crime Is Increasing A report discussing the proposition that computer crime has increased dramatically over the last 10 years. Introduction Computer crime is generally defined as any crime accomplished through special knowledge of computer technology. Increasing instances of whites of these types of crimes are complex embezzlements that might occur over long periods of time, or when a computer operator uses a computer to steal or alter valuable information from an employer. Variety and Extent Since the first cases were reported in 1958, computers have been used for most kinds of crime, including fraud, theft, embezzlement, burglary, sabotage, espionage, murder, and forgery. One study of 1,500 computer crimes established that most of them were committed by trusted computer users within businesses i.e. persons with the requisite skills, knowledge, access, and resources. Much of known computer crime has consisted of entering false data into computers. This method of computer crime is simpler and safer than the complex process of writing a program to change data already in the computer. Now that personal computers with the ability to communicate by telephone are prevalent in our society, increasing numbers of crimes have been perpetrated b...

Scottish Surnames Meanings and Origins

Scottish Surnames Meanings and Origins Scottish surnames as we know them today - family names passed down intact from father to son to grandson - were first introduced into Scotland by the Normans about the year 1100. Such hereditary names were not universally prevalent and settled, however. The use of fixed Scottish surnames (last names that didnt change with each generation) wasnt really in prevalent use until the 16th century, and it was well into the late 18th century before surnames were common in the Highlands and northern isles. Origins of Scottish Surnames Surnames in Scotland generally developed from four major sources: Geographical or Local Surnames - These are names derived from the location of the homestead from which the first bearer and his family lived, and are generally the most common origin of Scottish surnames. Most of the earliest people in Scotland to adopt fixed surnames were the nobles and great landowners, who were often called by the land they possessed (e.g. William de Buchan from Buchan, Scotland). Eventually, even those who did not own significant land started to use place names to identify themselves from others of the same name, adopting the name of the village or even the street where the family originated. Tenants often took their name from the estate where they lived. Thus, most of the earliest surnames in Scotland were derived from place names. Topographic surnames derived from vague geographical locations rather than specific places, also fall into this category. These names may refer to physical features such as streams (Burns), moors (Muir) or forests (Wood) or to man-mad e structures, such as a castle or a mill (Milne). Occupational Surnames -   Many Scottish surnames developed from a persons job or trade. Three common Scottish surnames -   Smith (blacksmith), Stewart (steward) and Taylor (tailor) - are excellent examples of this. Offices associated with the kings lands and/or hunting are another common source of Scottish occupational names - names such as Woodward, Hunter,  and Forest.Descriptive Surnames -   Based on a unique quality or physical feature of the individual, these surnames often developed from nicknames or pet names. Most refer to an individuals appearance - color, complexion, or physical shape  - such as Campbell (from  caimbeul, meaning crooked mouth), Duff (Gaelic for dark) and Fairbain (beautiful child). A descriptive surname may also refer to an individuals personality or moral characteristics, such as Godard (good natured) and Hardie (bold or daring).Patronymic and Matronymic Surnames -   These are surnames derived from baptismal or Christian names to indicate family relationship or descent. Some baptismal or given names have become surnames without any change in form. Others added a prefix or an ending. The use of Mac and Mc was prevalent throughout Scotland, but especially in the Highlands, to indicate son of (e.g. Mackenzie, son of Coinneach/Kenneth). In lowland Scotland, the suffix ​-   son was more commonly added to the fathers given name to form a patronymic surname. These true patronymic surnames changed with each successive generation. Thus, Roberts son, John, might become known as John Robertson. Johns son, Mangus, would then be called Mangus Johnson, and so on. This true patronymic naming practice continued in most families until at least the fifteenth or sixteenth century before a family name was eventually adopted that passed down unchanged from father to son. Scottish Clan Names Scottish clans, from the Gaelic clann, meaning family, provided a formal structure for extended families of shared descent. Clans each identified with a geographical area, usually an ancestral castle, and were originally controlled by a Clan Chief, officially registered with the court of the Lord Lyon, King of Arms which controls heraldry and Coat of Arms registration in Scotland. Historically, a clan was made up of everyone who lived on the chiefs territory, people for which he was responsible and who, in turn, owed allegiance to the chief. Thus, not everyone in a clan was genetically related to one another, nor did all members of a clan bear a single surname. Scottish Surnames - Meanings Origins Anderson, Campbell, MacDonald, Scott, Smith, Stewart... Are you one of the millions of people sporting one of these top 100 common Scottish last names? If so, then youll want to check out our list of the most commonly occurring surnames in Scotland, including details on each names origin, meaning, and alternate spellings.   TOP 100 COMMON SCOTTISH SURNAMES THEIR MEANINGS 1. SMITH 51. RUSSELL 2. BROWN 52. MURPHY 3. WILSON 53. HUGHES 4. CAMPBELL 54. WRIGHT 5. STEWART 55. SUTHERLAND 6. ROBERTSON 56. GIBSON 7. THOMPSON 57. GORDON 8. ANDERSON 58. WOOD 9. REID 59. BURNS 10. MACDONALD 60. CRAIG 11. SCOTT 61. CUNNINGHAM 12. MURRAY 62. WILLIAMS 13. TAYLOR 63. MILNE 14. CLARK 64. JOHNSTONE 15. WALKER 65. STEVENSON 16. MITCHELL 66. MUIR 17. YOUNG 67. WILLIAMSON 18. ROSS 68. MUNRO 19. WATSON 69. MCKAY 20. GRAHAM 70. BRUCE 21. MCDONALD 71. MCKENZIE 22. HENDERSON 72. WHITE 23. PATERSON 73. MILLAR 24. MORRISON 74. DOUGLAS 25. MILLER 75. SINCLAIR 26. DAVIDSON 76. RITCHIE 27. GRAY 77. DOCHERTY 28. FRASER 78. FLEMING 29. MARTIN 79. MCMILLAN 30. KERR 80. WATT 31. HAMILTON 81. BOYLE 32. CAMERON 82. CRAWFORD 33. KELLY 83. MCGREGOR 34. JOHNSTON 84. JACKSON 35. DUNCAN 85. HILL 36. FERGUSON 86. SHAW 37. HUNTER 87. CHRISTIE 38. SIMPSON 88. KING 39. ALLAN 89. MOORE 40. BELL 90. MACLEAN 41. GRANT 91. AITKEN 42. MACKENZIE 92. LINDSAY 43. MCLEAN 93. CURRIE 44. MACLEOD 94. DICKSON 45. MACKAY 95. GREEN 46. JONES 96. MCLAUGHLIN 47. WALLACE 97. JAMIESON 48. BLACK 98. WHYTE 49. MARSHALL 99. MCINTOSH 50. KENNEDY 100. WARD Source: National Records of Scotland - Most Common Surnames, 2014

Health care interview Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Health care interview - Essay Example followed healthy lifestyle with outdoor activities and nutritious food habits. They mainly access healthcare through medical expenses and consult their local doctors. As part of baby boomers’ generation, their health related expenses are fully insured by state and Medicare takes care of it. They are satisfied because they find their doctors friendly who empowers them with information about illness so that they can take better prevention next time. In the times of the fathers, life had become more hectic which left little time for outdoor activities. The technology had infiltrated all aspects of their personal and professional life. They access healthcare through local government clinic and specialist that have opted for in their health insurance. Most pertinently, healthcare deliverables had become market driven. Healthcare is purchased by individuals and employers from private agencies and insurers and not government. This segment is not satisfied as they could only opt for healthcare plans which they could afford and not what they actually required. It also meant that in cases of serious illness, their finances were stretched badly. For poor and marginalized population access to quality healthcare was limited due to lack of resources. Access to healthcare services was also tedious due to long queue and waiting. Access to healthcare services were accessed mainly by prior appointments with specialists and relied on strict med ications for getting well. They were more resigned to higher cost of healthcare and had little faith in alternative medicines. The current generation of people is technology driven but it also realizes the importance of holistic treatment. It believes in empowered decisions and therefore is more inclined to research the illnesses through internet. They access healthcare through local dispensary as well as consult specialist if the

Self-Defense Is Not Just A Physical Technique Essay

Self-Defense Is Not Just A Physical Technique - Essay Example Self-defense lessons also offer women an unusual chance to discover the wide range of sentiments that frequently happen when we begin to recognize the altitude of aggression in our culture. It is an outstanding vehicle for discovering annoyance, sorrow, and terror, and for patter into the delight that arrives from finding your tone and determines your personal inner supremacy. As the law of self-defense has evolved, it has become recognition of our right to defend ourselves with lethal force when we reasonably believe we are confronted with an imminent threat, which threat we did not create and from which we cannot retreat with safety. Under those circumstances, the law is ready to justify, as self-defense, conduct that otherwise would be considered criminal (Women Self Defense, Online). Traditionally, self-defense has been defined as "the act of defending one's person when physically attacked, as by countering blows or overcoming an assailant" (Webster's Encyclopedic Dictionary, 1989). This definition, if strictly followed, would narrow the scope of instructional content to contain only the psychomotor learning domain. Holistic physical education instructional units must additionally account for the cognitive and affective learning spheres. Therefore, a conservatively modern understanding of self-defense must be adopted-- a task that can prove challenging due to the diversity of self-defense curricula (Mencken, Pg 113-114). Self-defense is only designed to be used defensively, never as an offensive weapon. Beyond that, if there are other means of protection available, the law directs us to use those rather than choosing to defend with deadly force. There are numerous institutes where teachings of self-defense are given. Some are specially meant for the courses given particularly for women, they may include some as follows: Home Safety Precautions Internet Safety Precautions Dating Safety Precautions Parking Lot Safety Precautions Walking Home from School Safety Precautions Outdoor Exercise Safety Precautions Socializing Precautions Sexuality Concepts Bystander Effect Drugs/Alcohol/Date-Rape Drugs Trusting Your Intuition Awareness of Physical Surroundings Statistics on Violence/Crime Trusting Strangers Dog Attacks (Jacobs and Ogle, Pg 13-14) Elements Of Self-Defense Self-defense is planned to operate as a shield, not a sword. For that reason, rules have developed historically requiring a showing that the person claiming to have employed self-defense was not acting as the aggressor but was, instead, defending next to imminent attack. It is virtually indisputable that as a general rule one should not be allowed exoneration by striking out preemptively, claiming that a future attack would have occurred had it not been thwarted. But battered women cases force us to reexamine the rules that have grown up to support the principle that self-defense is only defensive in that strict temporal sense. (Jacobs and Ogle, Pg 99) State Of Mind In my view, frame of mind and psychological approach is the supreme component of any personal Target Hardening policy. One has to make a decision at the instant that one is the marauder; that someone is the conqueror.

Analytical response to a poem Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Analytical response to a poem - Essay Example The poet is successful in creating the nightmarish situation before the readers through the careful selection of images, symbols, allegories, diction, etc. and thereupon to indicate the situation of the world he lives in. "Things fall apart; the centre cannot hold; / Mere anarchy is loosed upon the world, / The blood-dimmed tide is loosed, and everywhere / The ceremony of innocence is drowned" (Yeats, lines 3-6) According to the speaker of the poem, the best people in the world lack all conviction, whereas the worst "are full of passionate intensity." Therefore, a reflective analysis of the poem "The Second Coming" by William Butler Yeats, it becomes lucid that the poet employs harsh imagery, powerful language, and strong symbolism in order to warn readers of a world in a chaotic downfall and the approach of the birth of an antichrist in a new two thousand year cycle. This paper undertakes a profound investigation of the use of imagery, symbolism, and poetic language in the poem "The Second Coming" in order to determine the main themes as well as aesthetic characteristics of the poem. The poem "The Second Coming" by WB Yeats belongs to the Modernist poetry and the poet has been effective in incorporating the various poetic techniques of the Modernist poetry. ... "Turning / and turn / ing in / the widen / ing gyre // The fal / con can / not hear / the fal / coner" (Yeats, lines 1-2) Significantly, the rhymes of the poem are haphazard too and there are only coincidental rhymes in the poem, such as "man" and "sun", apart from the two opening couplets of the poem. Thus, the major rhymes of the poem include "gyre" and "falconer", "hold" and "world", and "man" and "sun". The poem is written in two stanzas - the first one with eight lines and the second one with sixteen lines. In a reflective analysis of the imagery used by the poet in "The Second Coming", one recognizes that Yeats begins his prophetic poem with harsh and dark imagery which effectively conveys the message of the poet. The opening image of 'the widening gyre' which suggests the historical movement or trend started at the birth of Jesus Christ is figured as a falcon's towering and the images such as 'falcon', 'falconer', 'Mere anarchyloosed upon the world' etc indicates the kind of world that the poet lives in. Similarly, other images like 'blood-dimmed tide', 'ceremony of innocence', 'passionate intensity', 'the Second Coming', 'vast image out of Spiritus Mundi, 'shape with lion body and the head of a man', 'indignant desert birds', 'stony sleep', 'rocking cradle', etc help the author in effectively conveying his points. Therefore, the stunning, violent, harsh and dark imagery used in the poem makes it greatly appealing to the readers and the author efficiently communicates to the readers t hrough these images. The use of strong and convincing symbolism has made significant contribution to the success of "The Second Coming" which is Yeats' most

The Real-Political World in Movies Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

The Real-Political World in Movies - Essay Example Episode 18, La Palabra, looks at the challenges and pressures that the media mounts on individuals in power, especially when it comes to controversial issues that require someone in a position of leadership to take a stand. The episode focuses on issues of healthcare and whether to give illegal immigrants driving licenses or not. This is reminiscent of real-life politics since healthcare continually plays a critical role in shaping the credibility of a leader, or the overall manifesto that an aspiring leader is presenting to the people. As an illustration, Obama’s Obamacare was viewed as being revolutionary by some, while being loathed by others. In all, his stance on healthcare is one of the major pillars that define his leadership up to now. On the other hand, the issue of illegal immigration is one of the major headaches affecting most European nations. Almost all leaders and individuals in powerful positions have something to say about illegal immigrants. The most vivid is Tramp’s stand on illegal Mexican immigrants, which led to him being in the mainstream media for quite some time. In all, this just highlights how the issue of illegal immigration is a major facet of the political landscape. Consequently, this shows how La Palabra touches on issues that are easily relatable to the real-life political world. Similarly, King Corn looks at the various intrigues affecting the lives of congressmen and other individuals in busy political offices. The episode is full of the intrigues that these individuals go through.

Stem cell research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Stem cell - Research Paper Example Adult stem cells or somatic stem cells are â€Å"multipotent† cells that function as an internal repair system lifelong in some organs such as the gut and bone marrow, to replenish damaged cells (Pessina and Gribaldo, 2006). The characteristic ability of the stem cells to renew themselves continuously for long periods and differentiate into specific cell types under appropriate conditions (Zhong, 2008) make them good candidates for cell-based therapies in regenerative or reparative medicine. Customarily, although inappropriately, the term â€Å"stem-cell research† is used in news reports and political debates to discuss all scientific research involving stem cells. There is no controversy about research involving adult stem cells that are obtained from bone marrow, or the umbilical-cord stem cells taken from the residual blood found in the umbilical cord after delivery of the baby, or the stem cells present in the amniotic fluid. However, it is the research on and appli cation of ESCs for clinical use that has led to a raging controversy both on the basis of religious beliefs and for political brownie points. Scientifically, too, ESC therapy is not all hunky-dory. For instance, it has not been possible yet to consistently control the growth of ESCs. Also, the interactions of ESCs with other cells have been known to cause erratic growth patterns, including tumors, and tissue rejection responses (Repair Stem Cells Institute, 2009). The Catholic Church has supported adult and umbilical-cord stem-cell research but is vehemently opposed to embryonic stem cells being used for research based on religious beliefs. The main reasons for the opposition of the Catholic Church to ESC research as described by The Pontifical Academy for Life (2000) are (1) The only way in which ESCs can be isolated at present involves the destruction of an unimplanted blastocyst-stage embryo at the sixth to eighth day of development. The isolation of the inner cell mass (ICM) of the blastocyst for the preparation of embryonic stem cells is tantamount to destruction of the embryo; hence, the Church considers that a gravely immoral, and consequently, a gravely illicit act; (2) producing cloned human embryos and then destroying them in order to harvest ESCs is considered illicit; and (3) the use of embryonic stem-cell lines that already exist for research is also equal to destruction of innocent human life and, hence, immoral. Although the highly dramatized versions appearing in news reports of the possibility of growing whole organs from stem cells in petri dishes sounds amazing, it is more science fiction than reality. However, from a cell and developmental biology standpoint, ESC research is highly important. Scientists working on the application of stem cells to the medical field have been greatly worried, though, since stem cell research has suffered great harm on account of lack of accessible or quality stem cell lines. Following the ban by the U.S. fede ral government of embryonic stem cell research in August 2001, only those stem cell lines that came into existence before August 9, 2001 remained unconstrained by the ban. However, those cell lines have become possibly

Fiscal policy of the U.S Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Fiscal policy of the U.S - Essay Example This would mean that there are measures put in place that ensure federal states have their budgets scrutinized well and that the debt nationally remains quite stable and ensuring that it is continually on a declining path. The Bowles-Simpson plan was set up with ideology of ensuring that they reduce the deficit and achieve the American fiscal goals outlined above. This plan is based on certain key fundamental components that would help in meeting the financial deficit. The Bowles-Simpson plan recommends for an enactment of a comprehensive tax reform. This plan focuses in reducing tax expenditure through what Bowles and Simpson described as â€Å"zero plan† which is intended to drastically cut not only the size but also the number of expenditures (Ghilarducci, 954). The main aim for America is to generate more revenue and direct that revenue to development and growth of the economy. These changes will ensure there is improvement in the tax equation that is both on the income an d expenditure. This would be achieved by applying several measures among them establishing tax policy. Implementation of a tax policy would ensure that there is a reduction in deficit especially on the federal states by making an attempt to raise more tax while cutting down on spending. This plan also aims at identifying possible areas of additional cuts on spending and revenue generations. Bowles-Simpson plan has various ways of achieving the goal that had been set out and adopted various options. As stated by Mathews et al (167), the† Zero Plan,† would work towards cutting off all unnecessary tax expenditures and save approximately eighty billion dollars yearly to cut on the financial deficit thus the revenue gains can be used to reduce tax rates. However there would be some exemption for instances in foreign tax credit, child credit and in earnings from income tax credit. There was less common preferencing especially on mortgage interest, retirement saving and on heal th insurance that is employer-sponsored. The plan also intends to ensure that expenditures on corporate tax are eliminated and that there is a reduction on the same. There was the Alternative minimum tax that also required elimination. The six individual bracket tax rates currently would be replaced with a schedule that has only three brackets and increase the same to higher percentages. Another major change would came in the wage base especially on the social security one which was to be increased with a two percent annually resulting to more than the average wage growth making it a more effective way. Gasoline which acts as a major source of income in federal states and increasing the excise tax on the same therefore would ensure that there is increase in income. While the proponents of Bowles-Simpson says that it is a remedy to ensuring that Americans reduce their debts and that there is economic revival the opponents of the same argue that this plan will reduce on net of safety programs such as Medicare and social security. According to Matthews et al (681), the Bowles-Simpson plan’s main strategy is cutting deep into benefits in order to restore solvency to the program while causing a number of serious and adverse changes. The fact the policy failed to protect the low income earners from these drastic reductions, low income workers are unlikely to support the program because of the reduced benefits. Moreover, this policy breaks the links between the relationship between their past earnings

Stem cell research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Stem cell - Research Paper Example Adult stem cells or somatic stem cells are â€Å"multipotent† cells that function as an internal repair system lifelong in some organs such as the gut and bone marrow, to replenish damaged cells (Pessina and Gribaldo, 2006). The characteristic ability of the stem cells to renew themselves continuously for long periods and differentiate into specific cell types under appropriate conditions (Zhong, 2008) make them good candidates for cell-based therapies in regenerative or reparative medicine. Customarily, although inappropriately, the term â€Å"stem-cell research† is used in news reports and political debates to discuss all scientific research involving stem cells. There is no controversy about research involving adult stem cells that are obtained from bone marrow, or the umbilical-cord stem cells taken from the residual blood found in the umbilical cord after delivery of the baby, or the stem cells present in the amniotic fluid. However, it is the research on and appli cation of ESCs for clinical use that has led to a raging controversy both on the basis of religious beliefs and for political brownie points. Scientifically, too, ESC therapy is not all hunky-dory. For instance, it has not been possible yet to consistently control the growth of ESCs. Also, the interactions of ESCs with other cells have been known to cause erratic growth patterns, including tumors, and tissue rejection responses (Repair Stem Cells Institute, 2009). The Catholic Church has supported adult and umbilical-cord stem-cell research but is vehemently opposed to embryonic stem cells being used for research based on religious beliefs. The main reasons for the opposition of the Catholic Church to ESC research as described by The Pontifical Academy for Life (2000) are (1) The only way in which ESCs can be isolated at present involves the destruction of an unimplanted blastocyst-stage embryo at the sixth to eighth day of development. The isolation of the inner cell mass (ICM) of the blastocyst for the preparation of embryonic stem cells is tantamount to destruction of the embryo; hence, the Church considers that a gravely immoral, and consequently, a gravely illicit act; (2) producing cloned human embryos and then destroying them in order to harvest ESCs is considered illicit; and (3) the use of embryonic stem-cell lines that already exist for research is also equal to destruction of innocent human life and, hence, immoral. Although the highly dramatized versions appearing in news reports of the possibility of growing whole organs from stem cells in petri dishes sounds amazing, it is more science fiction than reality. However, from a cell and developmental biology standpoint, ESC research is highly important. Scientists working on the application of stem cells to the medical field have been greatly worried, though, since stem cell research has suffered great harm on account of lack of accessible or quality stem cell lines. Following the ban by the U.S. fede ral government of embryonic stem cell research in August 2001, only those stem cell lines that came into existence before August 9, 2001 remained unconstrained by the ban. However, those cell lines have become possibly

Theory and practices of negotiation Essay Example for Free

Theory and practices of negotiation Essay Definition When you hear the word negotiation, what comes first to mind? Negotiation is almost always an everyday transaction being dealt with by each and every one of us. Indeed, how often do you negotiate often, seldom, or never? Everything in life is negotiated, under all conditions, at all times: from asking your parents to bring you to the shopping malls to take out the morning garbage to driving in the express lane in rush-hour traffic, from determining what time to schedule an appointment with a client to deciding which tv show to watch with your family—to some extent, every facet of life is linked with one’s using of negotiation. Negotiation occurs whenever people exchange ideas with the intention of changing relationships or whenever they confer for agreement. Another definition expanding slightly the above meaning of negotiation is to note that negotiation is conducted neither to widen nor to breach the relationship, but to form a new or different configuration. In short, most of us are constantly involved in negotiations to one degree or another for a good part of any given day. Negotiation should be considered as a positive way of structuring the communication process. It is usually more than helpful in one’s work environment and in closing deals with new clients or prospects. Win-win negotiation skills are assets to a company especially if you will be in-charge of marketing new and pioneer products to the market. Effective negotiation helps you to resolve situations where what you want conflicts with what someone else wants. The aim of win-win negotiation is to find a solution that is acceptable to both parties, and leaves both parties feeling that theyve won, in some way, after the event. Preparing for a successful negotiation†¦ Depending on the scale of the disagreement, some preparation may be appropriate for conducting a successful negotiation. For small disagreements, excessive preparation can be counter-productive because it takes time that is better used elsewhere. It can also be seen as manipulative because, just as it strengthens your position, it can weaken the other person’s. However, if you need to resolve a major disagreement, and then make sure you prepare thoroughly. Using our free worksheet, think through the following points before you start negotiating: Goals: what do you want to get out of the negotiation? What do you think the other person wants? Trades: What do you and the other person have that you can trade? What do you each have that the other wants? What are you each comfortable giving away?   Alternatives: if you don’t reach agreement with the other person, what alternatives do you have? Are these good or bad? How much does it matter if you do not reach agreement? Does failure to reach an agreement cut you out of future opportunities? And what alternatives might the other person have? Relationships: what is the history of the relationship? Could or should this history impact the negotiation? Will there be any hidden issues that may influence the negotiation? How will you handle these? Expected outcomes: what outcome will people be expecting from this negotiation? What has the outcome been in the past, and what precedents have been set?   The consequences: what are the consequences for you of winning or losing this negotiation? What are the consequences for the other person? Power: who has what power in the relationship? Who controls resources? Who stands to lose the most if agreement isn’t reached? What power does the other person have to deliver what you hope for? †¢ Possible solutions: based on all of the considerations, what possible compromises might there be? Negotiating successfully†¦ The negotiation itself is a careful exploration of your position and the other person’s position, with the goal of finding a mutually acceptable compromise that gives you both as much of what you want as possible. Peoples positions are rarely as fundamentally opposed as they may initially appear the other person may have very different goals from the ones you expect! In an ideal situation, you will find that the other person wants what you are prepared to trade, and that you are prepared to give what the other person wants. If this is not the case and one person must give way, then it is fair for this person to try to negotiate some form of compensation for doing so – the scale of this compensation will often depend on the many of the factors we discussed above. Ultimately, both sides should feel comfortable with the final solution if the agreement is to be considered win-win. Only consider win-lose negotiation if you dont need to have an ongoing relationship with the other party as, having lost, they are unlikely to want to work with you again. Equally, you should expect that if they need to fulfill some part of a deal in which you have won, they may be uncooperative and legalistic about the way they do this.

Review of DNA and Protein Microarray for BioMEMS Technology

Review of DNA and Protein Microarray for BioMEMS Technology In recent years increase in genetically caused diseases is one of the major threat to mankind. Some of the genetically caused diseases are down syndrome, diabetes, obesity, sickle cell anemia, cystic fibrosis. This review paper explains how BioMEMS (Biological MicroElectroMechanicalSystem) technology used in microarrays and finding of gene expression which leads to medicine for particular diseases. BioMEMS research has been acquiring importance, due to the possibility of exploiting miniaturization to create new opportunities in medicine. BioMEMS systems in general have more diversity of materials and function than conventional MEMS devices. In BioMEMS ink-jet printing, photolithography techniques were introduced to deposit protein and DNA in array. DNA and protein micro-arrays based BioMEMS could be very extensively for rapid detection, drug discovery, and screening, especially when combined with integrated micro-fluidics and sensitive detection technologies. The techniques used to d efine patterns on semiconductor surfaces were utilized to construct arrays of single-stranded DNA. Once single strands of known sequences (capture probes) are placed at specific known sites on a chip surface, hybridization with molecules of unknown sequence (target probes) can reveal the sequence. Microarray-based gene expression profiling can be used to identify genes whose expression is changed in response to  disease caused genetically by comparing gene expression in infected to that in uninfected cells or tissues. Protein and antibody arrays can play a key role in search for disease-specific proteins that have medical, diagnostic, prognostic, and commercial potential as disease markers or as drug targets and for determination of predisposition to specific disease via genotypic screening. Array-based integrated chips and micro-fluidics hold a great potential for the development of high-throughput approaches to systematically analyze these proteins and to assign a biological fun ction, determine protein-protein and protein-DNA interactions. This paper tells about varies applications of BioMEMS to detect the defective gene the causes diseases and the fabrication methods used in microarrays chip production. Keywords: LOC Lab-on-a-chip, BioMEMS (Biological MicroElectroMechanicalSystem), ÃŽÂ ¼TAS (Micro Total Analysis System), Oligonucleotide, Microdroplets , Electrospray. 1. Introduction Microarray technology has been applied to study of gene expression to study mechanisms of diseases and to accelerate the drug discovery process. There is a definite trend towards increasing the use of molecular diagnostic methods, and biochip technologies, along with bioinformatics techniques. Classification of human disease using microarrays is considered to be important. The emphasis is not only on diagnosis but also on disease management, including monitoring the effect of treatment and determining prognosis [1]. Microarray and lab-on-a-chip systems are going to fulfill these new requirements, including the miniaturization of biological assays as well as the parallelization of analysis. Although the concept has been performed by miniaturizing the analytical equipments, the technology comes from the microeletromechanical and microelectronics industries [2]. Lab-on-a-chip technology is the method of choice to integrate processes and reaction and scale them down from conventional gla ssware to microfluidics, involving micro-sized channels in glass or polymer chips [3]. DNA microarray also knows as DNA chips, comprise a new technology emerging at a tremendous pace because of its power, flexibility, sensitivity and relative simplicity [4]. BioMEMS for proteomics can be divided into LOC device for specific tasks such as protein isolation, purification, digestion, and separation; and microarray device for high throughput study of protein abundance and function. An emergence of DNA, protein microarray has emerged over the last few years with commercial potential beyond the confines of the research laboratory [5]. In this paper we start our discussion with the history of microarray; subsequently we go into the details of general techniques used in DNA and protein microarray followed by fabrication and the application and future of microarray. 2. History of Microarray Microarray technology evolved from Southern blotting, where fragmented DNA is attached to a substrate and then probed with a known gene or fragment [6]. The first reported use of this approach was the analysis of 378 arrayed lysed bacterial colonies each harboring a different sequence which were assayed in multiple replicas for expression of the genes in multiple normal and tumor tissue [7]. These early gene arrays were made by spotting cDNA onto filter paper with a pin-spotting device. The use of miniaturized microarray for gene expression profiling was first reported in 1995 [8]. This technology allowed scientists to analyze thousands of mRNAs in a single experiment to determine whether expression is different in disease state. Unfortunately, mRNA levels within a cell are often poorly correlated with actual protein abundance [9]. A complete eukaryotic genome on a microarray was published in 1997[10]. The development of biochip has a long history, starting with early work on the und erlying sensor technology. In 1953, Watson and Crick announced their discovery of now familiar double helix structure and sequencing techniques by Gilbert and Sanger in 1977 [11, 12]. Two additional developments enable the technology used in modern DNA-based biosensors. First, in 1983 Kary Mullis invented the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) technique, a method for amplifying DNA concentration. This discovery made possible the detection of extremely small quantities of DNA in samples. Second, in 1986 Hood and co-workers devised a method to label DNA molecules with fluorescent tags instead of radiolables, thus enabling hybridization experiments to be observed optically [13]. A big boost in research and commercial interest came in the mid 1990s, when ÃŽÂ ¼TAS (Micro Total Analysis System) technology turned out to provide interesting tooling for genomics application, like capillary electrophoresis and DNA microarray [14]. Immunoassays, the precursor to protein chips available since t he 1980s, exploit the interactions between antibodies and antigens in order to detect their concentrations in biology sample. Their creation, however, is tedious and expensive. As to this, research at Harvard University combined the technology of immunoassays and DNA microarray to develop the protein chip [15]. 3. DNA Microarrays and Fabrication 3.1 Introduction Microarray analysis allows simultaneous of gene and gene products, including DNA, mRNA and proteins. There are basically two formats: cDNA microarrays and oligonucleotide microarrays. A cDNA microarray is an orderly arrangement of DNA probe spot printed onto a solid matrix such as glass, nylon, or silicon. The substrate is usually less than 4ÃÆ'-4 cm, while the spot size is less than 250ÃŽÂ ¼m. A DNA molecular probe is tethered (embedded and immobilized) to each spot on microarray. surface modification of the substrate, such as wit poly-L-lysin or silane, facilitates adhesion of the DNA probes. Hybridization is the base pairing between target and the probe, and is limited by the sensitivity and specificity of the microarray. There are three basic types of oligonucleotide microarrays: gene expression, genotyping (SNPs), and resquencing. Genomic DNA may be used for the study of SNPs, while expressed DNA sequence (cDNA clones, expressed sequence tags or ESTs) are used for gene expre ssion [17]. 3.2 Microarrays for Gene Expression Gene expression microarrays are tools that tell how much RNA (if any) a gene is making. Since 1977, and prior to microarray, only a few genes could be studied at a time using the northern blot analysis. GeneChip (Fig. 1.1) microarrays use the natural chemical attraction, or hybridization, between DNA on the array and RNA target molecule from the sample based on complementary base pairs. Only RNA target molecule that have exact complementary base pair bind to the prob. Gene expression detection microarray is that they are able to measure tens of thousands of genes at a time, and it is this quantitative change in the scale of gene measurement that has led to a qualitative change in our ability to understand regulatory processes that occur at the cellular level. It is possible to obtain near comprehensive expression data for individual tissues or organs in various states. Compressions are possible for transcriptional activity across different tissue, and group of patients with and witho ut a particular disease or with two different diseases. Microarray studies are designed in principle to directly measure the activity of the genes involved in particular mechanism or system rather than their association with a particular biological or clinical feature [18]. Although genes may be thousand of base pairs long, it is only necessary to construct a probe of 25 bases that represent a unique complementary portion of the target gene. In other words, the short probe on the microarray measures the expression of the complete gene by sampling only a small section of the gene. In some instances, as little as one RNA molecule out of 100,000 different RNAs in an original sample may be detected [19]. Sensitivity is the ability to identify the rarely expressed transcripts in a complex background. Specification is the ability to discern between different family members. The hybridization efficiency of two nucleic acid strand depends on 1) Sequence-dependent factors for length, extent of complementarity, and overall base composition; 2) Sequence independent factors such as the concentration of the probe and target, time, temperature, cation concentration, valency character, pH, dielectric and chaotropic medica, surface characteristics of the solid, and density spacing of the probe molecules; and 3) Sample-dependent complex background signal, which are probes interacting with the wrong complementary sequence [20]. Fig 1.1 GeneChip probe microarray cartridge (Image courtesy of Affmetrix) 3.3 Microarray for SNPs Small difference in a DNA sequence can have major impact on health. Deletions, insertions, and other mutations of as little as a single base pair may result in signification disease. Identification these mutations require determining the exact sequence for thousand of SNPs distributed throughout the genome. Using microarray, it is possible to scan the whole genome and look for genetic similarities among a group of people who share the same disease. Using microarray to genotype 10,000 to 100,000 SNPs, it is possible to identify the gene or group of genes that contribute to disease. For example, if a large group of people with a given diagnosis have several SNPs in common, but not healthy people, then mutations may be looked for within those SNPs. A genotyping microarray may look for up to 100,000 SNPs or more [21]. 3.4 Fabrication DNA spotting may be accomplished by depositing PCR amplified ESTs (500-5000 base pairs), or by in suit synthesis of oligodeoxynucleotide sequences (20-50 base pairs) on the substrate. There are variety of spotting techniques that include mechanical and ink-jet style application. The GeneChip brand arrays provide high levels of reproducibility, sensitivity, and specification. The following process steps are used for fabrication of the GeneChip: 1) GeneChip probe array are manufactured through a combination of photolithography (Fig 1.2) and combinatorial chemistry. With a calculated minimum number of synthesis steps, GeneChip technology produce array with hundreds of thousands of different probes packed at an extremely high density. Small sample volumes are required for study. Manufacture is scalable because the length of the probe, not their number, determines the number of synthesis steps required. 2) Manufacturing begins with a 5-in square quartz wafer. Initially the quartz is washed to ensure uniform hydroxylation across its surface. Because quarts is naturally hydroxylated, it provides an excellent substrate for the attachment of chemical, such as linker molecules, that are later used to position the probes on the arrays. Fig 1.2 Photolithographic technique are used to locate and add nucleotides for fabrication of array of probe (Image courtesy of Affymetrix) 3) The wafer is placed in a bath of silane, which reacts with hydroxyl groups of quartz, and forms a matrix of covalently linked molecules. This distance between these silane determines the probes packing density, allowing array to hold over 500,000 probe location, or features, within a mere 1.28cm2. Each of these features harbors millions of identical DNA molecules. The silane film provides a uniform hydroxyl density to initiate probe assembly. Linker molecules, attached to the silane matrix, provide a surface that may be spatially activated by light (Fig 1.3). 4) Probe synthesis occurs in parallel, resulting in the addition of an A, C, T or G nucleotide to multiple growing chains simulataneously. To define which oligonucleotide chains will receive a nucleotide in each step, photolithographic masks, carrying 18 to 20 ÃŽÂ ¼m2 windows that corresponds to the dimensions of individual features, are placed over the coated wafer. The windows are distributed over the mask based on the desired sequence each. When the UV light is shone over the mask in the first step of synthesis, the exposed linkers become deprotected and are available for nucleotide coupling. critical to this step is the precise alignment of the mask with the wafer before each synthesis step. To ensure that this critical step is accurately completed, chrome marks on the wafer and on the mask are perfectly aligned. 5) Once the desired features have been activated, a solution containing a single type of deoxynucleotide with a removable protection group is flushed over the wafers surface. The nucleotide attaches to the activated linkers, initiating the synthesis process. 6) Although the process is highly efficient, some activated molecules fail to attach the new nucleotide. To prevent these outliers from becoming probes with missing nucleotides, a capping step is used to truncate them. In additional, the side chains of the nucleotides are protected to prevent the formation of branched oligonucleotides. Fig 1.3 GeneChip fabrication steps (Image courtesy Affmetrix). 7) In the next synthesis step, another mask is placed over the wafer to allow the next round of deprotection and coupling. The process is repeated until the probes reach their full length, usually 25 nucleotides. 8) Although each position in the sequence of an oligonucleotide can be occupied by one of four nucleotides, resulting in an apparent need for 24ÃÆ'-4, or 100, different masks per wafer, the synthesis process can be designed to significantly reduce this requirement. Algorithms that help minimize mask usage calculate how to best coordinate probe growth by adjusting synthesis rates of individual probes and identifying situations when the same mask can be multiple times. 9) Once the synthesis is completed, the wafer are deprotected and diced, and the resulting individual arrays are picked and packed in flowcell cartridges. Depending on the number of probe features per array, a single wafer can yield between 49 and 400 arrays. 10) The manufacturing process ends with a comprehensive series of quality control tests. Additional, a sampling of array from every wafer is used to test the batch by running control hybridizations. A quantitative test of hybridization is also performed using standardized control probes [22]. 3.5 Microarray Data Analysis Data filtration is performed by selecting threshold pixel intensity; and 2-, 5-, or 10- fold difference between the samples. Different genes with an identical profile may represent a coordinate response to a stimulus. Genes with opposite profiles may represent repression. To compare expression profiles it is necessary to define a set of metrics, or operations that return a value that is proportional in some way to the similarities or difference between two expression profiles. The most commonly used metrics are Euclidean distance and Pearson coefficient of correlation [23]. 3.5.1 Euclidean Distance Two or more profile of each of two genes are compared as a mathematical matrix operation of n-dimensional space, where n is the number of expression patterns available. The Euclidean distance is the square root of the summation of the difference between all pairs of corresponding values. For two genes the distance is as follows: Where d is the distance, e1 is the expression pattern of gene1, e2 is the expression pattern of gene 2, and i is the element of the expression profile: Gene1 (e11, e12, ., e1n) and gene1 (e21, e22, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.,e2n). 3.5.2 Pearson Correlation Coefficient The Pearson correlation coefficient (r) gives a value of from -1 to 1, and closer to 1 (negative and positive correlation, respectively). The closer two profiles have the same expression, the closer the value will be to 1: Where and Sen are the mean and typical deviation of all of the point of the nth profile, respectively. 4. Protein Microarray and Fabrication 4.1 Introduction Protein microarrays are becoming an important tool in proteomics, drug discovery programs, and diagnostics [24]. The amount of information obtained from small quantities of biological samples is significantly increased in the microarray format. This feature is extremely valuable in protein profiling, where samples are often limited in supply and unlike DNA, cannot be amplified [25]. Protein microarrays are more challenging to prepare than are DNA chips [26] because several technical hurdles hamper their application. The surfaces typically used with DNA are not easily adaptable to proteins, owing to the biophysical differences between the two classes of bioanalytes [27]. Arrayed protein must be immobilized in a native conformation to maintain their biological function. Unfortunately, proteins tend to unfold when immobilized onto a support so as to allow internal hydrophobic side chains to from hydrophobic bonds with the solid surface [28]. Surface chemistry, capture agents, and detect ion methods take on special significance in developing microarrays. Microarrays consist of microscopic target spots, planer substrates, rows and columns of elements, and probe molecules in solution. Each protein assessed by a microarray should be the same as the partial concentration of each protein in the biological extract [29]. The past ten years have witnessed a fascinating growth in the field of large-scale and high-throughput biology, resulting in a new era of technology development and the collection and analysis of information. The challenges ahead are to elucidate the function of every encoded gene and protein in an organism and to understand the basic cellular events mediating complex processes and those causing diseases [30-33]. Protein are more challenging to prepare for the microarray format than DNA, and protein functionality is often dependent on the state of proteins, such as post-translational modification, partnership with other proteins, protein subcellular locali zation, and reversible covalent modification (e.g. phosphorylation). Nonetheless, in recent years there have been considerable achievements in preparing microarray containing over 100 proteins and even an entire proteome [34-36]. Randox Laboratories Ltd. Launched Evidence, the first protein Biochip Array Technology analyzer in 2003. In protein Biochip Array Technology, the biochip replaces the ELISA (Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay) plate or cuvette as the reaction platform. The biochip is used to simultaneously analyze a panel of related tests in a single sample, producing a patient profile. The patient profile can be used in disease screening, diagnosis, monitoring disease progression or monitoring treatment (wiki Biochip). Protein expression profiling, protein-protein binding, drug interaction, protein folding, substrate specificity, enzymatic activity, and the interaction between protein and nucleic acids are among the application of protein microarrays. Abundance-based microarray, including capture microarray and reverse-phase protein blots, measure the abundance of specific biomolecules using well defined and high specific analyte-specific reagents (ASRs). Different classes of molecules can act as capture molecules in microarray assays, including antigen-antibody, protein -protein, aptamer-ligand, enzyme-substrate, and receptor-ligand [37]. 4.2 Spotting In situ synthesis of protein microarrays as done for DNA microarrays is impractical. Other forms of delivery-based technology must be incorporated. One-drop-at-a-time (microspotting) techniques including use of pins, quills or hollow needles that repeatedly touch the substrate surface depositing one spot after the next in an array format; shooting microdroplets from a ejector similar to ink-jet printing; and depositing charged submicron-sized droplets by electrospray deposition (ESD). Alternatively, parallel techniques such as microcontact printing (ÃŽÂ ¼CP), digital ESD, and photolithographic controlled protein adsorption can be used. Currently, micospotting by robotic techniques has greater use in the research setting, whereas parallel techniques offer cost saving for mass production for commercial use [38]. 4.3 Microcontact printing (ÃŽÂ ¼CP) In microcontact printing stamps are typically made from a silicon elastomer and used to make a microarray of spots with feature size from 0.01 to 0.1ÃŽÂ ¼m. Steps for stamping include the following [38]: 1) Activation of the stamp surface to increase hydrophilicity or to introduce grups for inking to target molecules such as antibodies, protein A, or streptavidin. 2) Direct adsorption of protein molecules or their binding to capture molecules over a period of 0.5-1 hours. 3) Rinsing. 4) Drying in a nitrogen stream for about a minute. 5) Pressing the stamp against a suitable substrate for about a minute to allow transfer of the semidry materials. Disadvantages include poor control of the amount of materials transferred, small amount of deposited materials, and possible changes in protein function. Microarrays containing up three different proteins were fabricated by ÃŽÂ ¼CP technique and tested as a detection system for specific antibodies [39]. Immunoassay were successfully performed using the patterned protein microarrays, and were characterized by fluorescence microscopy and scanning- probe microscopy. The characterization revealed the quality of the protein deposition and indicated a high degree of selectivity for the targeted antigen-antibody interaction. 4.3 Electrospray Deposition (ESD) The basic physics underlying the newly emerging technique of electrospray deposition (ESD) as applied to biological macromolecules. Fabrication of protein films and microarrays are considered as the most important applications of this technology. All the major stages in the ESD process (solution electrification, formation of a cloud of charged microdroplets, transformation of microdroplets into ions and charged clusters, deposition, and neutralization) are discussed to reveal the physical processes involved, such as space charge effects, dissipation of energy upon landing and neutralization mechanisms [40]. In electrospray deposition, protein is transferred from the glass capillary positioned 130-350 ÃŽÂ ¼m above a conducting surface. Micro-sized charged droplets move in an electric field created by the difference in electric field potential between the tip and the substrate surface and by the spatial charge of the droplet cloud. The electrostatic repulsion expands the cloud, and microdroplets are deposited as a round spot. The spot density is greater at the center [38]. Two new techniques were recently developed in these laboratories for fabrication of protein microarrays: electrospray deposition of dry proteins and covalent linking of proteins from dry deposits to a dextran-grafted surface. Here we apply these techniques to simultaneously fabricate 1200 identical microarrays. Each microarray, 0.6 ÃÆ'- 0.6 mm2 in size, consists of 28 different protein antigens and allergens deposited as spots, 30à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬â„¢40 ÃŽÂ ¼m in diameter. Electrospray deposition (ESD) of dry protein and covalent linking of proteins from dry deposits to a dextran-grafted surface has been studied from fabrication of microarrays. Electrospray (ES) deposition has been applied to fabricate protein microarrays for immunochemical assay. Protein antigens were deposited as arrays of dry spots on a surface of aluminized plastic. Deposition was performed from water solutions containing a 10-fold (w/w of dry protein) excess of sucrose. Upon contact with humid air, the spots tur n into microdroplets of sucrose/protein solution from which proteins were either adsorbed or covalently linked to clean or modified aluminum surfaces. It was found that covalent binding of antigens via aldehyde groups of oxidized branched dextran followed by reduction of the Schiff bonds gives the highest sensitivity and the lowest background in microarray-based ELISA, as compared to other tested methods of antigen immobilization [41]. Protein microarray with an antibody-based protein array for high-throughput immunoassay, with an ESD method using a quartz mask with holes made by an abrasive jet technique, has been performed. An antibody solution was electrosprayed onto an ITO glass, and then antibodies were deposited and cross-linked with a vapor of glutaraldehyde. The dimeters of the spots were approximately 150 ÃŽÂ ¼m. The arrays were then incubated with corresponding target antigenic molecules and washed. The captured antigens were collectively detected by fluorescence and chemiluminescence. The signals were quantitatively visualized with a high-resolution CCD [42]. 4.4 Surface immobilization In many proteomics applications, one is interested in the facile and covalent immobilization of protein molecules without the use of any special tag or chemical modification. This is most conveniently achieved via chemical reactivity towards the commonly available -NH2 groups on the surface of protein molecules. One of the most efficient leaving groups towards -NH2 is N-hydroxysuccinimide (NHS) attached via an ester bond. We have developed an NHS surface based on the zero background PEG coating. It allows for fast immobilization reactions with the remaining NHS groups easily washed off to expose the zero background PEG coating (Fig 1.4). In subsequent assays, the PEG functionality ensures that binding of particular molecules to the surface is only through the specific interaction with the immobilized protein molecule and the commonly seen background problem is solved without the need of a blocking step. Fig 1.4 NHS activated surfaces for the immobilization of proteins, peptides, antibodies (Image courtesy: ZeroBkg ® ) Peptide and protein microarrays fabricated on NHS/PEG/glass slides (Fig 1.5) Nanoliter droplets of peptide (21 amino-acids) or protein (fibrinogen) solution containing 10% glycerol are deposited on the glass slide with a robotic arrayer and incubated for 10 minutes. NHS-groups in remaining area are removed by a deactivating buffer for 30 minutes at room temperature. The immobilized peptide or protein on the surface is detected by incubation with the primary antibody specifically against the peptide or fibrinogen, followed by wash and incubation with cy3-conjugated secondary antibody. The glass slides are imaged on a laser scanner. The most important result is the exceptionally low background due to the PEG coating. While the NHS/PEG coated glass slides are ideal for protein, peptide, and antibody arrays, they are also useful as low background surfaces for other microarrays, such as oligonucleotides, carbohydrates, and other small molecules. The non-fouling property of the high densit y PEG coating becomes critically important when one uses such an array for the study of complex biological samples, such as plasma or serum. In order to detect molecules of low abundance, such as cancer biomarkers, one needs to minimize non-specific adsorption of other abundant biomolecules [43]. Fig 1.5 Fluorescence images of peptide (left) and protein (Fibrinogen, right) microarrays fabricated on NHS/PEG/glass slides and detected by immunostaining. The diameter of each spot is ~100 ÃŽÂ ¼m (Image courtesy: ZeroBkg ® ).   4.5 Self-assembling Protein Microarrays Molecular fabrication of SAMS depends on chemical complementarily and structural compatibility, both of which confer the weak and noncovalent interaction that bind building blocks together during self-assembly. Water-mediated hydrogen bonds are important for living system. In nature the assembly of peptide and proteins has yielded collagen, keratin, pearl, shell, coral and calcite microlenses, and optical waveguides [44]. The application of self-assembly techniques in the design of biocompatible protein microarray surfaces, immobilizing cells, and lipid layers, and spotting techniques has been reviewed by others [45-46]. 4.6 Detection Strategies Detection and readout of complex formation in each spot is performed with fluorescence, chemiluminescence, mass spectrometry, radioactivity, or electrochemistry. Label-free methods include mass spectrometry and SPR. Labeled probe methods include use of a chromogen, fluorophor, or a radioactive isotope. Direct strategies use a labeled antibody to directly bind to the target molecule immobilized on the substrate. Amplification strategies based on avidin-biotin binding enhance sensitivity. Indirect strategies use an immobilized antibody for capturing labeled, specific molecules from the sample. Sandwich assay as noted earlier require two distinct antibodies foe detection of a capture molecule. The first antibody is immobilized on the substratum, and serves to capture the molecule of interest. A second labeled antibody then binds to the first complex allowing detection [47]. 5. Application of Microarray Ever since the first 1000 probe DNA microarray was reported over a decade ago [48], great strides have been made in both quantitative and qualitative applications. Today, a standard DNA chip contains up to 6.5 million spots and can encompass entire eukaryotic genomes. A plethora of alternative applications are continually reported, albeit at various stages of maturity. What was once seen solely as a transcript profiling technology has now emerged as a reliable format for genotyping, splice variant analysis, exon identification, ChIP-on-chip, comparative genomic hybridization (CGH), resequencing, gene synthesis, RNA/RNAi synthesis and onchip translation [49]. Perhaps the most exciting recent developments from a drug discovery perspective come from the integration of diverse technological innovations into microarray-based solutions, especially for other classes of molecular entity. From small molecules (e.g. metabolites, nucleotides, amino acids, sugars) to oligomeric and polymeric der ivatives thereof, microarrays are now allowing us to examine the intra-class (e.g. protein-protein) and inter-class (e.g. protein: small molecule) interactions of these bio-system components on a systems-wide level. Yet, despite the appearance of a diversity of microarray types (e.g. Small Molecule Microarrays (SMMs) [51], Protein-Nucleic acid (PNA) microarrays [52], Glyco-chips [53], peptide chips [54], antibody chips [55], cell and tissue microarrays [56]), each differs in their relative contribution to the Voltaire challenge. Certainly the foremost of such opportunities are thos