Public Finance Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3250 words

Open Finance - Essay Example Powerful expense framework targets supplementing government’s spending plans. Any shortage in charge assortment will prompt spending shortfall that will prompt financial deficiency. High government obligation is adverse for financial possibilities of a nation. It means powerless government structure which will influence remote speculation. Remote speculators pay special mind to stable economies to put away their cash which will yield more significant yields. Administrations of various countries target elevating its fare division to help its outside trade profit. Consequently, a powerful duty framework would hope to make up for the high endowment charge that is given for advancing immature and fare arranged parts. Duty framework over the world are sorted in three different ways for example backward, relative and dynamic. When all is said in done expenses are exacted on people and organizations. Government generally force a specific rate or sections to decide the taxability of people and organizations. There is another order for charges which depends on the effect and episode of tax assessment. It is immediate and aberrant. Direct assessments suggest where the effect and episode is on a similar individual and which can't be moved. Personal expense, enterprise charge are instances of direct assessments. Though utilization charge, extract obligation, customs are backhanded assessments. Such charges have various purposes of effect and episode for example the weight of the duty can be moved from the makers to buyers. In specific nations a sum is deducted from the pay of people towards protection commitments like NIC in UK (James, 2009). There are sure highlights that are ascribed to the duty framework to guarantee value at all levels. Governments over the world normally follow both of the three expense frameworks for example backward, corresponding and dynamic. Financial specialists plan the assessment structure in a manner that guarantees a harmony among reserve funds and consumption. It is a significant exchange off for the

The Guilt of Macbeth and Lady Macbeth Essay -- William Shakespeare

The Guilt of Macbeth and Lady Macbeth Blame is a solid and awkward inclination that regularly results from one’s own activities. This compelling feeling is one of the topic thoughts in William Shakespeare, â€Å"Macbeth†. Both Macbeth and Lady Macbeth feel blame, however they respond in various ways. Blame solidifies Macbeth, yet aim Lady Macbeth to end it all. As Macbeth shrives to progress blame overcome’s Macbeth where he can no longer think straight. At first Macbeth arranged was to slaughter Duncan however it wasn’t enough he likewise needed to execute Banquo and Macduff’s family. Then again Lady Macbeth needed to call upon the abnormal sister to unsexed her so she had no evident inclination towards anything as though she was a man. Notwithstanding, the genuine blame of the homicide can fall on either Lady Macbeth or Macbeth. Maybe one of the most grounded clear proof that show blame, is the manner by which it influences woman Macbeth, how she couldn’t handle it any more, and that was the explanation of her passing. Woman Macbeth understands that nothing would ever dispose of the smell of the blood and the blame brought about by all the killings submitted by Macbeth. â€Å"Here’s is the smell of blood still. All the aromas of Arabia won't improve this little hand. O, O, O!’’, (V, I, 53-55) It’s additionally appeared here that she feels liable for each individual her Husband slaughtered. The blame of Duncan's homicide can be put solidly on the hand on Lady Macbeth. Woman Macbeth needs the homicide of Duncan for her own benefits. Given the current circumstance, she is ravenous for power. The peculiar sisters anticipated that Macbeth would be top dog. This implies the undeniable outcome would be Lady Macbeth will be sovereign. Rather than trusting that Duncan will bite the dust normally or to be slaughtered by another person, she powers the undertaking onto Macbeth. ... ...d her youngsters be killed. As Macduff arrives at England he hears the news and anguish and promise vengeance upon Macbeth. Despite the fact that the awful legend Macbeth genuinely perpetrated the wrongdoing, it was Lady Macbeth that pushed him to his furthest reaches of sound idea and basically ridiculed him to bring down his regard. With Macbeth's resistances down, it was a simple undertaking for Lady Macbeth to impact Duncan's homicide and come up with a rationalization concerning why she was unable to do it without anyone else's help. The Quotes and clarifications utilized all through this exposition, developed evidence that blame assumes a huge job in spurring Macbeth. Blameworthy sentiments were brought out through the character’s activities and reactions, until the extremely deadly end were they wishes none of this at any point occurred. Works Cited Shakespeare, William. Catastrophe of Macbeth . Ed. Barbara Mowat and Paul Warstine. New York: Washington Press, 1992.

Best TOEFL Books of 2020

Best TOEFL Books of 2020 There are a few good TOEFL books. There are a lot of bad TOEFL books. I hope that this article helps you pick the best ones. Note that it is now February, 2020. Ill update and revise this list throughout the year as new books are released. At the end you can find my current list of non-recommended books and websites.Books Updated to Match the New TOEFLKaplans TOEFL iBT Prep Plus 2020-2021. This was the first TOEFL textbook updated to match the new version of the test. However, I dont really recommend it. The sample questions in the book are not very accurate, especially the reading and writing questions. The questions in the sample tests (provided online) are also very inaccurate. They just dont match the structure and organization of questions used on the real test. Moreover, there are only three practice tests provided online (instead of the four promised on the books cover). While the book has a ton of strategies, they are organized in such a way that many students will just be l eft confused after reading them. You can also read my complete review.Princeton Reviews TOEFL iBT Prep was the second book this year to match the new test. This one is much better than Kaplans book, but it also has a lot of accuracy problems. The most obvious are in the chapters about the reading and speaking sections. You can read about all of them in my full review of the book. I suppose the best part of this book is the collection of skill building exercises in the beginning of the book. There is only one complete sample test (which can only be done on paper there is no software included), but there are additional practice questions throughout the book. Note that this book used to be called Cracking the TOEFL. That was a stupid name.Barrons TOEFL IBT (16th Edition). This one is sort of updated to match the new test. The textbook itself is not updated. However, the eight practice tests have been updated to match the new format. Also new in this edition is the fact that the practi ce tests are now provided online, rather than on CD. Note that I have not purchased this book because Im waiting for the 17th edition which will be published in April of 2020. I will wait until then before I comment on the quality of the book. Note that this is also sold as part of a Superpack, with three other books (writing, vocabulary and strategies).

The Effects Of Cultural Diversity On Our Culture - 1798 Words

In this country, we have been blessed throughout the years with an immense wave of cultural diversity. Very few countries in the world have such a wide variety of different people from all different places and walks of life like our country does. Whether this is something we welcome or not, it has had the power to influence our culture in several different aspects. Much like we have various languages spoken in our country, as well as various types of food that we enjoy, we also have various religions being practiced as well. People bring their religious beliefs and practices with them when they come here, and they remain faithful to those beliefs despite moving to a country that may or may not practice that culture. They seek other†¦show more content†¦It is easy to overlook how much these two aspects influence each other, but the truth is they are more connected than we would ever think. According to Acts 17:16-34 â€Å"The apostle Paul found himself surrounded by many idols in the city of Athens in Greece. When coming across this wonderful realization, his spirit was inspired which caused him to want share his faith as much as he could. He would go about the marketplace every day and speak to people who would be there, as well as go into synagogues and try to reason with Jews about Jesus and his resurrection. Some people would listen to him intently, while others would simply resort to mocking him or wonder what we was even trying to talk about. Even some of the Stoic and Epicurean philosophers would speak to him, again, some would listen with curiosity while others would merely find him and his remarks ridiculous. Eventually, those who were curious about what he had to say and his new teachings took him to the Areopagus. Once there, standing in the middle of everything, Paul addressed the people of Athens about their faith, He noted how religious they truly were, perhaps without them even noticing, and how there were many altars and idols around Athens that held great meaning. Paul explained to them how the God they worshipped and believed in, did not live in temples made by man nor did he

The Markowitz Mean Variance Optimization Model Finance Essay - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 17 Words: 5144 Downloads: 2 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Finance Essay Type Analytical essay Did you like this example? Abstract This project examined the optimal allocation of stocks based on the Markowitz Mean Variance Optimization Model. It is mainly based on the comparison between two samples of stock returns. The first sample is referred to as the full data set, and contains the returns of the stocks GE, Baxter, Dow, Caterpillar, Apple, and Procter and Gamble calculated over the period of five years. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "The Markowitz Mean Variance Optimization Model Finance Essay" essay for you Create order The second sample takes the 250 most recent daily returns as the base data set. The objective is to find the optimal allocation in a portfolio of risky assets only and the Complete Portfolio that an investor could choose in order to maximize his utility. Before analyzing the results from the optimization process, we started by analyzing the data, and verifying that the assumption of normality the model is valid in both data sets. Then we describe the results given by the different optimizations that we calculated and we compared both samples showing the optimal allocation for risky assets only and the optimal allocation that includes the risk free asset. Then, we graph the efficient frontier along with the capital allocation line, and we make some comments about the results obtained. Finally, we formulate the recommendation to the investor based on the results obtained, and we point out some of the limitations of the model that could explain some of the unrealistic results that we fo und. The methodology of the calculations, the tables and the charts used are all referenced in the appendix of this paper in order to illustrate the results obtained. Introduction This project is based on the Markowitz Mean Variance Optimization Model for defining the optimal weights of assets in a given portfolio based on various investment constraints. The model generally seeks to maximize return for a given level of risk, or minimize risk for a given level of return. Markowitz formulated the portfolio construction problem as a utility maximization problem and used this to develop a framework for selecting a range of optimal portfolios. In his model, Markowitz made several assumptions on which this project is based. These assumptions designed the portfolio selection problem to a mean-variance portfolio optimization problem and are as follows: All investors have a single holding period during which they will maximize their utility function. Investors dont incur any transaction costs or taxes while trading the securities. Investors have a quadratic utility function that they should maximize based on the expected return, variance, and risk aversion. The returns used should be normally distributed. Investors are assumed to be risk averse where they prefer to maximize the returns given a minimum level of risk All the investors share the same economic view of the world, and they analyze the securities in the same way. I/ Analyzing Stock Returns and Standard Deviations According to Table 1 and 2 in Appendix 2, the results show that the expected returns in the full data set obtained were generally lower than the expected returns in the sample of the 250 most recent returns. (Please refer to Appendix 1 for the methodology of calculations.) The major explanation is that the full data set covers the 2007/08 financial crisis in which the U.S stock market has dropped down by more than 50%, which had an implication on the mean expected returns calculated over the period from 2006 until 2011, and shows relatively lower returns. In comparison, the 250 most recent returns sample covers a period of one year starting from the 2nd of March, 2010 until the 31st of January, 2011. During this period, the stock market has recovered from the historic lows of March 2009, and is still facing a market rally that has been consistent until now, which affects the performance of individual stocks at the exception of Baxter, and Procter Gamble, which underperformed due t o some fundamental issues that are related to their business sectors. Regarding standard deviation, we can see that the stocks in the full data set present a higher standard deviation than in the second data set. This shows that during the period from 2006 to 2011, there has been a high volatility in the market, which is illustrated by the stocks demonstrating some extreme returns. This is mainly due the shape of the recovery after the financial crisis, which displayed some significant drops in the share prices and recovering back at a rapid rate of growth, after March 2009. However, the volatility has stabilized during the last year which means that stocks are becoming less risky in comparison with the last three years. II/ Analyzing the Data Sets 1) Testing for normality Before going through the process of selecting the optimal portfolios, we first examine the returns computed and see if they match the assumptions of normality that have been stated earlier for the model to be valid. In order to do so, the Jarque-Bera test for normality is chosen, and provides a formal method in which Skewness and Kurtosis are used to analyze the distribution of the returns. (Please refer to the appendix for the description of the Jarque and Bera test for normality) Analysis of the results: The data in tables 3 and 4 from Appendix 2 show different results for the two sample sizes. In the Full data set, the JB test statistics computed are all higher than the 9.21 critical value with 99% confidence level, which means that the distribution of the returns is not normal as we reject the null hypothesis. This is mainly explained by the fact that the kurtosis observed in all the stocks returns is positive and is higher than 3, which shows that the distributions exhibit fat tails. Moreover, Skewness is different from zero for all the distributions showing that they are not perfectly symmetrical, which rejects another condition for the normality of returns. If the returns display positive Skewness, this means that there is a high probability that the stocks involved will show positive returns in the future. By comparison in the second data set, we notice that the distributions of returns of the Stocks GE, Baxter, Procter Gamble, and Apple can all be assumed normal, as the JB statistic is lower than 9.21. One similarity between the stocks that dont have a normal distribution of returns in both data sets is that they display a leptokurtic distribution which means that the distribution is more focused around the center and in the tails than the normal distribution, and this is due to the excess kurtosis. 2) Testing for evidence of Volatility Clustering Volatility clustering is mainly characterized by the historical data of stock returns showing periods of high volatilities giving some extreme returns, which are then followed by periods of relatively low volatilities. Analysis of the results: According to the volatility charts in Appendix 2, we notice that all the stocks in the complete data set showed evidence of volatility clustering with a certain similarity in the clusters observed. In fact, most of the volatility clusters observed can be located between the periods of late 2007 to the mid 2009. This is explained by the high volatility of returns during the period of the financial crisis, where most stocks showed some extreme variations in the returns due to the investors trying to digest the panic that was going on in the market, and then they reacted accordingly by liquidating their positions. This pattern lasted until the mid of 2009 until some of the confidence was restored and investors came back into the market again. In comparison with the sample of the 250 most recent returns and according to the graphs, we cannot detect any significant evidence of volatility clustering for the stocks of Caterpillar and DOW, but we can clearly observe some evidence regarding Apple, PG, GE, and Baxter as the cluster can be clearly identifiable. This is mainly interpreted by the fact that since the information arrives in cluster, investors tend to take more or less time to react relative to the kinds of information that they receive with respect to the stocks. III/ The Portfolio Selection Process The Main objective of the portfolio optimization process is to find the optimal allocation of assets in the two data sets given two kinds of portfolios: one containing risky assets only, and another one that would include a risk free asset. For this, we used the Excel Solver to run three types of optimizations that result in three types of portfolios: the Minimum Variance Portfolio, the Optimal Risky Portfolio, and the Optimal Complete Portfolio. 1) Analyzing the results given by the Minimum Variance Portfolios In the Markowitz model, we have assumed that investors seek to maximize the return at a given level of risk, or minimize the risk at a given level of return. The minimum variance portfolio is the one that gives the optimal allocation of risky assets by minimizing the general risk of the portfolio. In order to do so, we used the Excel Solver and we set the portfolio variance as the target to minimize given both the constrained and unconstrained optimization criteria. The formula for the portfolio variance is given in the Appendix and is derived from the correlation matrixes that were computed for both data sets. The general parameters used in the Excel Solver are also explained for both the constrained and the unconstrained portfolios. Analysis of the results: According to table 5 and 6 in Appendix 2, the minimum variance portfolio for the full data gives two results based on the constrained optimization and the unconstrained optimization. In the Long Only Portfolio, the results suggest that the investor should invest in three stocks which are Baxter, Procter Gamble and, Apple with the respective weights of 32.87%, 62.14% and 4.99%. This gives a portfolio expected return of 6.60% with a standard deviation of 18.63%. In the Unconstrained Portfolio, the results suggest that the investor should invest in all the stocks by going long on Baxter (33.66%,) Caterpillar (3.90%,) Procter Gamble (65.22%,) and Apple (6.06%,) and shorting GE (-1.08%) and DOW (-7.75%.) The portfolio expected return in this scenario is 7.48% and the standard deviation is 18.43%. In the second data set, for the constrained portfolio, the results suggest that the investor should invest only in stocks Baxter, Procter Gamble, and Apple with the respective proportions of 11.90%, 84%, and 4.10%. The expected return obtained is 2.06%, for a standard deviation of 13.15%. In the unconstrained portfolio, the results suggest that the investor should go long GE (2.30%,) Baxter (12.51%,) Caterpillar (2.96%,) Procter Gamble (88.77%,) and Apple (9.44%,) and short Dow (-15.97%.) The expected return obtained is 2.42% for a standard deviation of 12.51%. Comparing the results obtained in the full data set and the 250 most recent return sample, we can notice that there are differences in the results we get. This difference is mainly explained by the change in the expected returns and standard deviations of the stocks in both data sets, and we can notice that this change has an impact on the performance of the portfolios expected return as well as the allocation of the assets in the portfolio. The best portfolio is chosen by using comparing the Sharpe ratios, which gives a risk adjustment measure that compares the performance of individual portfolios. From table X and Y in the appendix, we can say that best portfolio from the two samples is the Unrestricted Portfolio in the full data set since it gives a higher Sharpe ratio of 0.2432 relative to the other portfolios. 2) The Optimal Risky Portfolio The optimal risky portfolio is the one that maximizes the Sharpe Ratio and allows identifying the optimal weights of the risky assets in the portfolio. The formula for the Sharpe ratio is given in the appendix in the Methodology section. The ratio seeks to know how much additional return an investor would receive for the additional risk of holding the risky assets over a risk-free asset. The higher is this ratio the better is the performance of the portfolio with respect to risk and return. Analysis of the results: According to the table 7 and 8 in Appendix 2, for the full data set, the Long only portfolio suggests that the investor should be fully invested in Apple stock, which gives an expected return that is equivalent to the stocks expected return of 37.97% and a standard deviation also equivalent of 40.28%. By comparison, the unconstrained portfolio suggests that the investors should go long the stocks Baxter (48.77 %,) Caterpillar (91.02%,) and Apple (211.44%,) and short the stocks GE (-161.16%,) Dow (32.51,) and Procter and Gamble (-57.55%.) This gives a portfolio expected return of 102.24% and a standard deviation of 86.71%. In the second data set, the results suggest that the investor should invest in stocks Caterpillar (43.63%,) and Apple (56.37%.) this gives a portfolio expected return of 60.33% and a standard deviation of 24.65%. In the unconstrained scenario, the results suggest that the investor should go long the stocks Caterpillar (100.00%,) Procter Gamble (3.88%,) and App le (100.00%,) and short the stocks GE (-18.38%,) Dow (-41.73%,) and Baxter (-43.77%.) the expected return in this scenario is 110.34% and the standard deviation is 36.57%. By comparing the results of the two data sets, we notice that both optimizations give some unrealistic results in terms of the expected returns and variances of the portfolios, but also in terms of the proportions to be invested in the stocks. In fact, in the full data set, the Long-Only portfolio suggests that the investor should be invested in only one stock which eliminates any benefits from diversification and is a very risky strategy to pursue for long term asset allocation in general. The unconstrained portfolio is also unrealistic in terms of the weights that are attributed to the portfolios as some of them reach 100% proportion to be invested in, which is not possible because it doesnt allow for proper asset diversification. The only portfolio that seems to be realistic is given in the second data set w here the expected return is of 60.33%, which seems quite attractive given the level of risk that is suggested of 24.65%, and that is what one could consider as a realistic result since the proportions to be invested are shared between two stocks as it is the minimum diversification of risky assets that one could consider given the constraint of maximizing the Sharpe ratio. 3) The Optimal Complete Portfolio The optimal complete portfolio is the portfolio that consists of the optimal risky assets and the risk free asset. The optimal complete portfolio is determined by maximizing the investors utility function which is defined in Appendix 1. The result of the optimization gives the proportions to be invested in the risky assets and the risk free assets, which allows the investors to be properly diversified based on three main components that are, expected return, volatility, and risk aversion. Analysis of the results: According to table 9 and 10 Appendix 2, for the full data set, the Long-Only portfolio suggests that the optimal complete portfolio is the one that provides an expected return of 33.13% and a standard deviation of 34.72%. The proportion to be invested in the risky assets is 86.16%, and the proportion to be invested in the risk free asset is 13.84%. In this scenario, the maximization of the investors utility function suggests that the investor should be diversified between Apple stock and the risk free asset. In the unconstrained scenario, the optimization results in a portfolio expected return of 55.39%, and a standard deviation of 45.78%. The investors portfolio in this case consists of 52.77% in risky assets and 47.23% in the risk free asset. For the positions in the risky assets, the investor should go long the stocks Baxter (48.76 %,) Caterpillar (91.06 %,) and Apple (211.53 %,) and short the stocks GE (-161.24 %,) Dow (-32.53 %,) and Procter and Gamble (-57.58 %.) The Lo ng-Only portfolio in the second data set suggests that the investor should invest 90% of the portfolio in risky asset, and 10% in the risk free asset. The proportions of the risky assets are as follows: 98.84% in Dow, and 1.16% in Caterpillar. In the unconstrained portfolio, the results suggest that the investor should invest 90% in risky assets, and 10% in the risk free asset. The distribution of the asset weights is as follows: the investor should go long the stocks DOW (100%), Caterpillar (100 %,) GE (100 %,) and short Procter Gamble (-64.13 %,) and Baxter (-100 %,) and Apple (-35.87%.) When comparing the two samples, we notice that the unconstrained portfolios in both data sets provide some unrealistic results in terms of the portfolio weights as some of them equal or exceed 100% of the portfolios total weight. In the second data sets when we eliminate some of the constraints that allow us to have more accurate data, the result obtained show very large values that are comple tely unrealistic and prevent us from drawing any meaningful conclusions. In the full data set, the Long-Only portfolio although it suggests that the investor should be mixed between risky assets and the risk free asset does not provide proper diversification as the portfolio of risky assets is concentrated on one stock which is Apple stock, however, it seems that it is the one that provides the most realistic result. 4) The Efficient Frontier and the Capital Allocation Line Drawing the efficient frontier is the last step that allows the investors to visualize the optimal portfolios computed previously and choose the best alternatives that are offered given the results that are produced, and whether they are realistic or not. The Appendix 2 provides 4 graphs for both data sets that show the efficient frontier given the constrained and the unconstrained optimized portfolios. The capital allocation line which is determined by maximizing the Sharpe ratio is represented on each of the graphs and shows the optimal risky portfolios as well as the optimal complete portfolios. The indifference curve drawn display the curve of equally preferred portfolios that will generate the same utility to the investor. In the second data set, it was not possible to draw the Capital Allocation Line as the values obtained were inaccurate and extremely large. Moreover, the points showing the Optimal Risky Portfolio and the Optimal Complete Portfolio are those that were comput ed given the constraints that we have set in Appendix 1, for the purpose of obtaining more accurate results. This shows one of the limitations of the Mean Variance optimization model as it fails to provide meaningful results when using a small number of observations in the sample that we used. 5) Recommendation to the Investor The results obtained from each type of portfolio are summarized in tables 11 and 12. For a matter of convenience, we labeled the portfolios from Portfolio 1 to 12. In the recommendation to the investor we suggest to look first at the portfolios that give some realistic results, and then we can compare which ones provide the best results by using the Sharpe ratio as a measure of performance. Based on the results obtained, the portfolios that have been chosen are Portfolio 1, 2, 4, 7 and 10. Portfolios 1 and 7 do not provide a satisfying performance to the investor as the returns are lower than the risk free asset, and the risks observed are too high. In this case the investor is better off investing all his money into the risk free asset at 3%. Portfolio 2 is based on the Optimal Risky Portfolio in the second data set, and gives the highest Sharpe ratio of 156.62% with the following proportions: Caterpillar (43.63 %,) and Apple (56.37 %.) In comparison, portfolios 4, and 10 offer lo wer returns, hence, lower Sharpe ratios, but they also allow for more diversification among the stocks, and they give a relatively lower risk compared to portfolio 2. From a fundamental perspective, we recommend that the investors should always stay diversified between risky and the risk free asset in order to protect themselves against any unexpected downturn in the markets. For this, we suggest that the investors should choose to invest 70 percent in Portfolio 2, and 30% in the risk free asset. This will lower, the standard deviation to 17.262% for an Expected return of 42.24%. This gives a pretty high expected performance in comparison with the SP500 performance of 2010 which was of 15.65%, and it allows the investors to be less exposed to risk compared with portfolios 4 and 10. Conclusion The projects main objective was to identify the optimal allocation of assets from a portfolio containing risky assets and one that includes a risk free asset. The allocations obtained were based on the Markowitz Mean Variance Optimizations, and resulted in three kinds of portfolio along with the efficient frontiers for both samples of data that we have used. In the analysis of the results, we have found some unrealistic values that we judge are due to the assumptions that we made earlier, which reflect some of the limitations of the Model. In fact the first limitation that we can state is the assumption of normality on the returns in both data sets which seems to be unrealistic given the distributions that we have obtained. There is strong evidence that most stock returns display asymmetrical returns as well as showing excess Kurtosis which makes the model used hardly applicable and is responsible for the large values obtained. Second, the model assumes that investors will hold their investment on a fixed time horizon, and will never change the asset allocation, which is false given that some times, investors need to rebalance their portfolios shifting from the risky assets to treasury bills and other risk free assets depending on the market. Finally, the model focuses mainly on minimizing the volatility given a specific return or the opposite, and this is not compatible with todays environment in the sense that investors views and objectives are more sophisticated, and therefore require to use enhanced models such as the Black and Litterman Model. Appendix 1: Methodology Section 1. Computing Returns and Standard Deviations: The first step is to process the historical prices into returns and determine the individual stock returns as well as the standard deviations. The daily stock returns from the stocks closing prices are calculated using the oldest historical prices as the base dates. The computation of the daily stock returns is done using the following formula: Daily stock return= (Closing price of the current trading day Previous days closing Price) / Previous days closing Price We then compute the expected returns of the stocks in the portfolio using the simple arithmetic mean of returns formula, which is as follows: AR = (R1 + R2 + R3 + ÃÆ' ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ãƒâ€šÃ‚ ¦ + RN) / N The returns obtained are then annualized by multiplying the expected returns by 250 trading days on average in a given year. In order to calculate the risk of individual stocks, we used the STDEV function in Excel by selecting the daily returns calculated in the two data sets, and annualizing the values obtained by multiplying by the square root of 250 trading days on average per year. 2. The Jarque and Bera Test for Normality The Jarque-Bera test statistic for normality follows a chi-square distribution with 2 degrees of freedom. Concerning the analysis of the stock returns in the two data sets, I used the 99% confidence interval for which the critical value is 9.21 at 2 degrees of freedom. If the test statistic is higher than the critical value, we reject the null hypothesis that the monthly returns are normal, otherwise we accept it, and we can assume the returns are normal. Skewness gives the measure of asymmetry of the distribution, and is defined by the following formula: Where T is the time period or the length of the data used, and . Kurtosis is the measure of the flatness of the distribution, and is defined as follows: This leads to the computation of the Jarque-Bera test statistic which is as follows: 3. Volatility Clustering Volatility clustering is another important factor that can help to understand the patterns of the variations among stock returns. To show evidence of volatility clustering in the two data sets, we plotted the stock returns in a time series graph, and analyzed the different patterns of the individual stocks using the complete data set first, and then analyzing the most recent 250 stock returns to see if the patterns display some periods of high volatilities show some extreme returns, which are followed by periods of relatively low volatilities. 4. Measurement of Portfolio Risk and Return After computing the expected returns and risks of individual stocks, we define some of the formulas for computing the portfolio risk and return that will be used in the optimization process. Modeling the Portfolio Risk The portfolio risk is generally referred to as the portfolio variance. In our case of many assets, the variance of the portfolio takes the form of a matrix and has the following general formula: Where w1 to wn is a matrix that refers to the weights of the assets 1 to N in the portfolio, and ÃÆ' Ãƒâ€ Ã¢â‚¬â„¢xy is the covariance between assets x and y. In practice it is more useful to use the correlation matrix to derive the covariance matrix as it is generally unknown, and we have already computed the standard deviations of the individual stocks. In fact, we can derive the covariance matrix using the following formula: ÃÆ' Ãƒâ€šÃ‚ (x,y) = covariance(x,y)/ÃÆ' Ãƒâ€ Ã¢â‚¬â„¢x ÃÆ' Ãƒâ€ Ã¢â‚¬â„¢y Where ÃÆ' Ãƒâ€šÃ‚ xy is the correlation between assets x and y, and  ÃƒÆ' Ãƒâ€ Ã¢â‚¬â„¢n is the standard deviation of the nth asset. Hence we obtained the following: In excel, we used the following formula given that we have already computed the correlation matrix (appendix), the standard deviations and the expected returns of the stocks: {MMULT(MMULT(TRANSPOSE(wnÃÆ' Ãƒâ€ Ã¢â‚¬â„¢n); ÃÆ' Ãƒâ€šÃ‚ (x,y)); wnÃÆ' Ãƒâ€ Ã¢â‚¬â„¢n)} Where wnÃÆ' Ãƒâ€ Ã¢â‚¬â„¢n is the matrix that results from the multiplication of the portfolio weights with the standard deviations of individual stocks, and ÃÆ' Ãƒâ€šÃ‚ (x,y) is the correlation matrix. Determining the Portfolios Expected Return The portfolio expected return is the sum of the product of the holding of the assets by the expected returns of the individual assets, and is represented as follows: Where the sum of the weights = 1, n is the number of securities held in the portfolio which is 6 stocks in our case, wi is the proportion invested in a given stock i, E(ri) is the expected return on the stock i. The Optimization Process The optimizations were run based on some investment constraints and without any investment constraints. In the constrained optimization scenario, we restricted having short positions in the market meaning that all the optimal weights should be positive or equal to 0. Also, we set the sum of the proportions invested in each stock to equate 1, and finally, we select the range of cells that should be changed in order to obtain the optimal weights for each type of portfolio that we want to have. In the unconstrained optimization scenario, we allowed for both short and long positions to occur, but we still keep the restriction on the sum of the optimal weights, setting it equal to 1. In the second data set, in the Optimal Risky Portfolio and Optimal Complete Portfolios, we add more constraints such as limit the individual weights from exceeding 100% or -100% of the portfolio, and setting the proportion invested in the risky assets not to exceed 90% in order to obtain a minimum level of diversification between the risky asset and the risk free asset in both the constrained and unconstrained portfolios. Sharpe Ratio The sharpe ratio is a risk adjusted measure to evaluate portfolio performance and is based on the following formula: Source: Investopedia.com The investors utility function The investors utility function used in this project is a quadratic function that is represented as follows: Where is the utility value, and A is the investors level of risk aversion. The number 0.005 is a scaling factor used by convention to express the expected return and standard deviation as percentages. The optimal complete portfolio would be the one that provides the highest utility by maximizing the formula using the Excel Solver. The result gives the optimal proportion to be invested in the risky asset which is represented by the following formula: The proportion invested in the risk free asset is given by: 1 Y Appendix 2: Tables and Charts Asset Data (Full Data Set) Expected Return Standard Deviation GE -3.62% 38.77% DOW 5.45% 43.86% Baxter 7.68% 24.63% Caterpillar 17.78% 38.93% Procter and Gamble 3.51% 20.51% Apple 37.97% 40.29% Table 1: Stock Return and Standard Deviations Using the Full Data Set Asset Data (250 Most recent returns) Expected Return Standard Deviation GE 22.75% 27.43% DOW 31.99% 36.29% Baxter -14.10% 24.40% Caterpillar 64.69% 29.83% Procter and Gamble 1.68% 13.49% Apple 56.95% 25.49% Table 2: Stock Return and Standard Deviations Using the 250 Most recent returns Full Data Set GE DOW BAX CAT PG AAPL Kurtosis 9.283169 7.042409 7.47999063 5.080399 7.659262 4.260446 Skewness 0.417837 -0.08243 -0.622318643 0.160727 -0.03425 -0.02987 JB Test Statistic 2121.731 871.6094 1151.235074 235.9717 1156.239 84.78961 Table 3: The Jarque-Bera Test for Normality Using the Full Data Set 250 Most Recent Returns GE DOW BAX CAT PG AAPL Kurtosis 2.414595 2.058731 21.2954 1.601479884 2.562847 2.396152 Skewness 0.170671 -0.32919 -2.61641 0.112397247 -0.20665 0.316714 JB Test Statistic 4.783472 13.74422 4.783472 20.89990707 3.769913 7.977748 Table 4: The Jarque-Bera Test for Normality Using 250 Most recent returns Full Data Set Long Constraint Unconstrained Portfolio Expected return= 6.60% 7.48% Portfolio Variance = 3.47% 3.40% Portfolio SD = 18.63% 18.43% Risk Free Asset = 3.00% 3.00% Sharpe Ratio = 0.1933 0.2432 Portfolio Weights GE 0.00% -1.08% DOW 0.00% -7.75% BAXTER 32.87% 33.66% CAT 0.00% 3.90% PG 62.14% 65.22% AAPL 4.99% 6.06% Table 5: Minimum Variance Portfolio using the Full Data Set 250 Most Recent Returns Long Constraint Unconstrained Portfolio Expected Return= 9.84% 1.45% Portfolio Variance = 2.28% 1.57% Portfolio SD = 15.11% 12.52% Risk Free Asset = 3.00% 3.00% Sharpe Ratio = 45.31% -12.37% Portfolio Weights GE 7.27% 3.05% DOW 0.00% -15.57% BAXTER 32.14% 12.52% CAT 0.00% 2.38% PG 39.40% 89.78% AAPL 21.18% 7.82% Table 6: Minimum Variance Portfolio using the 250 Most Recent Returns Full Data Set Long Constraint Unconstrained Sharpe Ratio = 86.79% 114.44% Portfolio Expected Return= 37.97% 102.24% Portfolio Variance = 16.23% 75.20% Portfolio SD = 40.29% 86.72% Risk Free Asset = 3.00% 3.00% Portfolio Weights GE 0.00% -161.16% DOW 0.00% -32.51% BAXTER 0.00% 48.77% CAT 0.00% 91.02% PG 0.00% -57.55% AAPL 100.00% 211.44% Table 7: Optimal Risky Portfolio using the Full Data Sets 250 Most Recent Returns Long Constraint Unconstrained Sharpe Ratio = 232.49% 293.41% Portfolio Expected Return= 60.33% 110.34% Portfolio Variance = 6.08% 13.38% Portfolio SD = 24.66% 36.58% Risk Free Asset = 3.00% 3.00% Portfolio Weights GE 0.00% -18.38% DOW 0.00% -41.73% BAXTER 0.00% -43.77% CAT 43.63% 100.00% PG 0.00% 3.88% AAPL 56.37% 100.00% Table 8: Optimal Risky Portfolio using the 250 Most Recent Returns   Full Data Set Long Constraint Unconstrained Investor Utility Function to Maximize 0.329779696 0.551279771 Expected Return on the Complete Portfolio 33.13% 55.39% Variance of the Complete Portfolio 0.120514451 0.209559707 Standard Deviation of the Complete Portfolio 34.72% 45.78% Coefficient of Risk Aversion (A) 2.50 2.50 Y (% investment in risky assets) 86.16% 52.77% Portfolio Expected Return= 37.97% 102.29% Portfolio Variance = 16.23% 75.26% Portfolio SD = 40.29% 86.75% Risk Free Rate = 3.00% 3.00% Sharpe Ratio = 86.79% 114.44% Portfolio Weights   GE 0.00% -161.24% DOW 0.00% -32.53% BAXTER 0.00% 48.76% CAT 0.00% 91.06% PG 0.00% -57.58% AAPL 100.00% 211.53% Table 9: Optimal Complete Portfolio Using the Full Data Set  Long Constraint Unconstrained Investor Utility Function to Maximize 0.293024078 1.006325758 Expected Return on the Complete Portfolio 29.43% 101.12% Variance of the Complete Portfolio 10.57% 39.25% Standard Deviation of the Complete Portfolio 32.52% 62.65% Coefficient of Risk Aversion (A) 2.50 2.50 Y (% investment in risky assets) 90.00% 90.00% Portfolio Expected Return= 32.37% 112.03% Portfolio Variance = 13.05% 48.46% Portfolio SD = 36.13% 69.61% Risk Free Rate = 3.00% 3.00% Sharpe Ratio = 81.29% 156.62% Portfolio Weights GE 0.00% 100.00% DOW 98.84% 100.00% BAXTER 0.00% -100.00% CAT 1.16% 100.00% PG 0.00% -64.13% AAPL 0.00% -35.87% Table 10: Optimal Complete Portfolio Using the 250 Most Recent Returns Full Data Set Long Only Portfolio (Constrained)  Protfolio Expected Return Portfolio Standard Deviation Portfolio 1: Minimum Variance Portfolio 2.06% 13.15% Portfolio 2: Optimal Risky Portfolio 60.33% 24.66% Portfolio 3: Optimal Complete Portfolio 29.43% 32.52%  Long Only Portfolio (Constrained) 250 Most Recent Returns Protfolio Expected Return Portfolio Standard Deviation Portfolio 4: Minimum Variance Portfolio 6.60% 18.63% Portfolio 5: Optimal Risky Portfolio 37.97% 40.29% Portfolio 6: Optimal Complete Portfolio 33.13% 34.72% Table 11: Summary Table of the Results Obtained From the Optimizations Full Data Set Long-Short Portfolio (Unconstrained)  Portfolio Expected Return Portfolio Standard Deviation Portfolio 7: Minimum Variance Portfolio 2.42% 12.51% Portfolio 8: Optimal Risky Portfolio 110.34% 36.58% Portfolio 9: Optimal Complete Portfolio 101.12% 62.65%  Long-Short Portfolio (Unconstrained) 250 Most Recent Returns Portfolio Expected Return Portfolio Standard Deviation Portfolio 10: Minimum Variance Portfolio 7.48% 18.43% Portfolio 11: Optimal Risky Portfolio 102.24% 86.72% Portfolio 12: Optimal Complete Portfolio 55.39% 45.78% Table 11: Summary Table of the Results Obtained From the Optimizations Efficient Frontiers: Full Data Set Efficient Frontiers: 250 Most Recent Returns Volatility of Returns: Full Data Set Volatility of Returns: 250 Most Recent Returns

Promoting Sexual Health Free Essays

INTRODUCTION Over the last 25 years sexual health has become one of the most important areas of health care across the world a global pandemic of HIV, the rapid worldwide spread of other sexually transmitted infections and an increasing awareness of sexual health issues by the public globally have all increased enormously the needs of those dealing with sexual health problems to have access to information on theory and practice that can help them adverse the diversity of issues they now face Miller and Green (2002). According to WHO Sexual health is a state of complete physical, emotional, mental and social well-being related to sexuality; it is not merely the absence of disease, dysfunction or infirmity. Sexual health requires a positive and respectful approach to sexuality and sexual relationships, as well as the possibility of having pleasurable and safe sexual experiences, free of coercion, discrimination and violence. We will write a custom essay sample on Promoting Sexual Health or any similar topic only for you Order Now For sexual health to be attained and maintained, the sexual rights of all persons must be respected, protected and fulfilled WHO (2002). This essay focuses to describe about sexual health, importance of sexual health promotion in teenagers, different levels of interventions, sexual health policies, theories and different sexual health strategies. AIM OF THIS ESSAY According to formally family planning association sexual health defined as the capacity and freedom to enjoy and express sexuality without fear of exploitation, repression physical and emotional harm FPA (2007). Rising STI rates and increasing termination rates DH (2008) indicate there is now a real need to address both issues through progressive work in sexual health care. Indeed, the HPA (2008) highlighted a clear need for people to be aware of how they can protect themselves from unplanned pregnancy and STIs, and the importance of sexual health promotion. The essay will begin with a brief overview of sexual health promotion in young men and women in UK. The UK has the worst sexual health record in Western Europe while the teenage pregnancy rates and sexually transmitted infections including HIV and sexual violence are increasing. So the importance of sexual health promotion is increasing within young men and women. The aim of this essay is to highlights the need to reduce sexually transmitted infections among teenagers both girls and boys DH (2010) .young people reflects concerns about unintended teenage pregnancies and sexually transmitted infections .Researches are showing that how being young influences sexual behaviours exploring issues including teenage negotiation of contraception and the influence of gender and peer norms both UK and internationally ( Widdice et al. 2006).High rates of sexually transmitted continue to be reported in UK,especially among young people, men who have sex with men and some ethnic minority populatio ns these groups remain at greatest risk infection Miles (2006). I choose the group teenagers (young men and young women) with the age group of 14 to 24for this essay. I selected the teenagers for this assignment because now the rate of teenage pregnancies, sexually transmitted infections, HIV and sexual violence is increasing in UK. IMPORTANCE OF SEXUAL HEALTH PROMOTION The Importance of sexual health promotion in teenagers is to reduce teenage pregnancies and sexually transmitted infections. Health care providers play a valuable role in educating their patients, and accuracy and completeness of information are the accepted standards in medicine Santelli (2008) Clinicians are held to professional standards involving medical and public health ethics, and are guided by professional health organizations. Guidelines in preventive medicine for HIV, other STIs and unintended pregnancy support the delivery of needed services, including counselling on condom and contraceptive use. Although recognition of evidence-based medicine has been increasing, wide variation exists in medical practices; often, the provider’s judgment is a component in determining patient care. Make awareness about the supportive clinics and provide counselling to the teenagers parents as well AMA (2009). Sexuality is an important part of one’s health and, quality of life and general well being. Sexuality is an integral part of the total person, affecting the way each individual from birth to death to every single person. A healthy sense of sexuality can provide numerous benefits including a link with the future through procreation, a means of pleasure and physical release, a sense of connection with others and a contribution of self identity Norbun and Rosenfeld (2004). A teenager may go through many physical, mental, emotional, and social changes. The biggest change is puberty that means becoming sexually mature. It usually happens between ages 10 and 14 for girls and ages 12 and 16 for boys. As their body changes, the teenagers may have questions about sex and sexual health. During this time, they start to develop their own unique personality and opinions. Some changes that they might notice including, increased independence from their parents, more concerns about body image and clothes, more influence from peers, Greater ability to sense right and wrong. All of these changes can sometimes seem overwhelming Medline plus (2011). LEGAL ISSUES OF SEXUAL HEALTH PROMOTION In the past there has been a confused legal response to creating a balance between protecting vulnerable members of society, and giving people the right to access support for sexual health problems. The legal structure in the UK divides into civil law and criminal law. Legislation can place boundaries on the extent to which health care workers may become involved in promoting the sexual health of an individual. The introduction of the Human Rights Act (2000) has an impact on the rights of the individual and the provision of health care. Criminal law governs people’s sexual behaviour by making some activities unlawful. The purpose of the legislation is to prohibit certain sexual activities and prevent exploitation .To provide young people with the knowledge, skills and confidence to resist any pressure to have inappropriate, early or unwanted sexual relationships and to manage their sexual health .To use discussion about sex and relationships to help young people develop thei r self-esteem and self-awareness. .To allow young people space to explore their values and attitudes .To encourage young people to make informed decisions about their behaviour, personal relationships and sexual health .To use discussion about sex and relationships to help young people develop their self-esteem and self-awareness Mellor and Williams (2005). SEXUAL HEALTH PROMOTION THEORIES This implies that whether an individual puts protection that is contraception and condoms) into practice depends on the susceptibility to pregnancy or STI infection, severity of that occurrence, the result of implementation of self protection, and the barriers to implementation (Abraham and Sheeran 2005) The motivation theory is a more complex model that contains lots of components such as perceptions of severity, response costs, vulnerability, pleasure and social approval. It also includes belief that the suggested behaviour will reduce the threat and self-efficacy. Self-efficacy is a person’s belief that they can be successful in carrying out the suggested behaviour (Norman et al. 2005) The theory of planned behaviour is a complex theory. An individual’s perceived behavioural control is the expectation that behaviour is within their control, and therefore is linked to efficacy and autonomy. Within perceived behavioural control lie several factors, including information and skill (Conner and Norman 2005). Social cognition theory focuses on individual motivation and action based on three types of expectancy. These are the situation outcome, action outcome and perceived self-efficacy. The theories are complex and therefore need further study before putting them into practice NICE (2007) recommended that trained in sexual health care professionals put the theories into practice in one-to-one structured discussions with clients. SEXUAL HEALTH STRATEGIES Increase the contribution of youth mothers in education, guidance or work to decrease the danger of long term social elimination. The national strategy for sexual health and HIV accepted that the consequences of poor sexual health can be severe leading to amongst other outcomes unwanted pregnancy and termination. The strategy has established a number of key indicators including to increase access to sexual health services, including contraception, particularly to young people. To increase the percentage of young people aged 15-24 accepting screening for Chlamydia. To provide access to Genito-Urinary Medicine clinics within 48 hours DH (2001) .The legal age for young people to consent to have sex is still 16, whether they are straight, gay or bisexual. The aim of sexual offences act 2003 is to protect the rights and interests of young people, and make it easier to prosecute people who pressure or force others into having sex they don’t want. Although the age of consent remains at 16, the law is not intended to prosecute mutually agreed teenage sexual activity between two young people of a similar age, unless it involves abuse or exploitation. Young people, including those under 13 will continue to have the right to confidential advice on contraception, condoms, pregnancy and abortion Mellor and Williams (2005). To remove the main barriers of sexual health care is to provide health education and that teaches about the sexual health care and care giving clinics. studies show that training in the area of human sexuality and taking sexual histories increases comfort and with addressing sexual health Nussbaum and Rosenfeld (2004).Sex education is offered in many schools, but don’t count on classroom instruction alone. Sex education needs to happen at home, too. Sex education basics may be covered in health class, but the teenagers might not hear or understand everything he or she needs to know to make tough choices about sex. Awkward as it may be, sex education is a parent’s responsibility. By reinforcing and supplementing what the teen learns in school, teachers can set the stage for a lifetime of healthy sexuality. Various factors peer pressure, curiosity and loneliness, to name a few steer some teenagers into early sexual activity. But there’s no rush. Sex is an adult beh aviour. In the meantime, there are many other ways to express affection intimate talks, long walks, holding hands, listening to music, dancing, kissing, touching and hugging. If you’re teen becomes sexually active — whether you think he or she is ready or not it may be more important than ever to keep the conversation going. State your feelings openly and honestly. Remind the teenagers that you expect him or her to take sex and the associated responsibilities seriously. Stress the importance of safe sex, and make sure your teen understands how to get and use contraception. You might talk about keeping a sexual relationship exclusive, not only as a matter of trust and respect but also to reduce the risk of sexually transmitted infections. Also set and enforce reasonable boundaries, such as curfews and rules about visits from friends of the opposite sex.Teenager’s doctor can help, too. A routine check-up can give teen the opportunity to address sexual activity and other behaviours in a supportive, confidential atmosphere — as well as learn about contraception and safe sex. For girls, the doctor may also stress the importance of routine human papilloma virus (HPV) vaccination to help prevent genital warts and cervical cancer MFMER (2009). Now we are failing young people in their sexual health needs, given an increasing trend in sexually transmitted infections and unplanned teenage pregnancies .significant changes can achieve by numerous endeavours including, equipping young people with the right knowledge, reaching their aspects of themselves which hold significant value in their present day lives to get focus and attention, providing solid basement of self esteem and self preservations in the first place. This must be delivered by open minded, unbiased and non judgemental professionals in a relaxed and friendly atmosphere.HPA (2008). A number of government education initiatives over the last 10 years including the healthy schools status programme. The aim of this curriculum is to support the young people as individual and to improve their concept about sexual health in society. But in some schools trained staff refused to implement this strategies and this act as a barrier of communication with young people DH (2005) sexual relationship education in school by trained confident and up to date professionals, employing straight forward language can make an awareness of pupils existing knowledge Ingham et al (2009).young people’s sexual health clinics are available and confidentiality of service is very important. Condom distribution services are also available locally for young people. Now the sexual health campaigns for teenagers are changed from use of condoms and condom essential campaigns to a new campaign. It aims to improve the knowledge and encourage open communication about relationships among young people, their parents and professionals DH and DCSF (2009). .the UK is still predominantly a patriarchal society. Gender imbalance can create a negative imbalance in our society. It has a reverse role when it comes to a sexual health provision. Young people’s contraceptive clinics habitually target young females. This stems from a political system desiring to protect itself from the negative consequences of un planned pregnancies ,neglecting young male services to the determent of their sexual health and well being Evans(2008).teenage pregnancy is increasing in UK among highest in Europe by year by year. There are two goals, to decrease teenage conceptions among under18 and get more teenagers parents for education, training and employment to reduce the risk. These goals were accomplished through government media voluntary and private sectors to change young peoples to sexual behaviour DCSF (2010).Health promotion programmes should be adaptable and innovative and offering different methods for feelings and expressions,and opportunities to help build self esteem. There are various economic and social influences contribute hopelessness in young people .young people are trying to express their individuality and find their position in the world Cater and Coleman (2006).According to Department of Health(2009)risk assessment is carried out by three tyre approach they are primary ,secondary and tertiary approach. In primary ,risk to teenagers that means unwanted pregnancy, sexually transmitted infections including HIV ,secondary risk is undiagnosed and un Symptomatic sexually transmitted infections, infertility and pelvic inflammatory infections etc Territory risk is known as collateral risk to another chronic illness like exacerbation to DM depression or leukaemia .these three approaches allows for effective evaluation of both sexual and holistic consequences of risk taking behaviour among young men and women. Another example of health promotion planning support is the effective sexual health promotion tool kit. It provides supportive toolkit for the professionals working with young people on sexual health promotion including practical tips for building self esteem and effective health promotion delivery DH (2002). Dating violence is a serious problem among adolescents and young adults. Understanding teens’ reaction to dating violence offer the potential to understand the factors that lead to perpetration of violent behaviour and to elucidate prevention strategies Dating violence, that is, violence between non-cohabitating, but courting individuals includes physical abuse, psychological abuse, and sexual abuse and has been recognized as an international and national public health problem of major proportion A great deal of current research indicates that dating violence is a serious problem among adolescents and young adults today Reyburn(2007). Using contraception also reduces the chance of pregnancy, but the type of contraception matters, and some methods are typically more effective than others. This essential fact is the key element of the analyses reported by the research team. The investigators guess how an enormous deal of the decrease in teen pregnancy rates might be credited to better contraception by probing shifts in the types of method used at last sex combined with the typical failure rates of these methods. How shifts in contraceptive use might give to declines in pregnancy rates have not been used beforehand improves on previous attempts to estimate the behaviours fundamental changing pregnancy rates. While more teenagers are doing the right thing adults continue to debate whether the reduction in accidental pregnancies is the result of efforts to encourage abstinence or to promote improved contraceptive protection. The analyses offered here cannot distinguish the factors and motives behind reductions in sexua l risk taking among teenagers SAM (2004). The counselling with young people for their sexual health problems, and the importance of sexual health promotion will also help tanagers to get a positive approach to the area of sexual health (Lopez et al. 2008) .Thoughtful, comprehensive approaches from providers are important, given that much of the information adolescents receive on sexuality and sexual risk is erroneous and unhealthy for them (Teitelman et al. 2009). Although this study has explored the content of preventive care received by adolescents at high risk, access to care is also critical, because most adolescents—particularly low-income adolescents, who are at highest risk of pregnancy and STIs do not make normal preventive care visits. For the at-risk adolescents who do present for a clinic visit, it is all the more important to provide effective prevention counselling (Chandra et al. 2008).Pre teenage education and counselling about the prevention of un wanted teenage pregnancies, STIs and HIV to teenagers i s very important. Dual protection refers to strategies that provide guard from unnecessary pregnancy and STIs, as well as HIV. Dual shield can take various forms, including the use of condoms only or the use of condoms with a different form of contraception and the support of emergency contraception, for added safety in opposition to unwanted pregnancy. Except a couple know they are free of HIV and other STIs and are not at risk through sexual activity with others, condoms are the key constituent of double protection. Thus, better interventions are essential which hold up women as well as men to make use of condoms through sexual intercourse, both for those living with HIV and those who may be in a discordant couple or when one or both partners are engaged in sexual activity with others who may be at risk. Most methods of contraception can be used irrespective of HIV status (Gruskin et al. 2007). Children and Young People in Wirral are the most significant asset. We should help them all raise into positive and victorious adults. They can do this for themselves but we will help them by ensuring they receive information and services when they are needed and in a way they can best make use of them. We are committed to removing barriers that prevent us from providing the services that children and young people tell us they need Wirral Health and Well Being Charter for Wirral Children and Young People (2008) The aim of the policy is to enable any member of staff to assess and respond appropriately to young people’s needs with regards to sexual health, within their professional boundaries, and from an informed perspective. CONCLUSION To conclude, sexual health promotion in teenagers is a very central matter. Social cultural and political factors can hold back effective communication between health professionals and young people and can put off young people from seeking professionals help regarding sexual health issues. Sexual health promotion will reach the young people at a level that has considerable meaning to achieve change in their sexual practice and to help them to reach their most favourable sexual health and sexual identity. Sexual health promotion in teenagers will assist to reduce the rate of sexually transmitted infections, HIVs, teenage pregnancies and sexual violence. REFERENCES Abraham, C., Sheeran, P. (2005) the health belief model. Predicting Health Behaviour, Research and Practice with Social Cognition Models. Maidenhead: Open University Press. 2.American Medical Association (2007) Sexuality Education, Abstinence, and Distribution of Condoms in Schools 2007. http://www. ama-assn.org/am/no-index/advocacy/8152.shtml [accessed: 22 Sep 2009]. Chandra, A. (2008) Does watching sex on television predict teen pregnancyFindings from a national longitudinal survey of youth. Paediatrics, 122(5), p.1047–1054. Coleman, L., Carter, S. (2006) planned teenage pregnancy: views and experiences of young people from poor disadvantaged backgrounds. Conner, M., Norman, P. (2005) Predicting health behaviour: a social cognition approach. Predicting Health Behaviour. Maidenhead: Open University Press. DCSF (2010) teenage pregnancy strategy [online] available at: www.dcsf.gov.uk. Department of Health (2001) the National Strategy for Sexual Health and HIV Department of Health. London Department of health (2002) effective sexual health promotion: a tool Kit: for primary care trusts and other working in the field of promotion of good sexual health and HIV prevention. [Online] available at: www.dh.gov.uk. Department of Health (2003) Effective Sexual Health Promotion Toolkit: a Toolkit for Primary Care Trusts and Others Working in the Field of Promoting Good Sexual Health and HIV Prevention. Department of Health: London. 10. Department of health (2005) national healthy school status: a guide for schools. DH: London. 11. Department of health (2009) moving forward: progress and priorities working together for high quality of sexual health. Stationary office: London. 12. Department of Health (2008) Abortion Statistics, England and Wales: 2007. London: DH. 13. DH (2010) publications, policy and guideline: primary secondary and tertiary prevention on. The stationary office London. 14. DH and DCSF (2009) sex worth talking about, www.dcsf .gov.uk, [accessed in March 2010]. 15. Evans, D. T. (2010), sexual health: exploring risk, promoting sexual health course, unpublished course material, Greenwich university. 16. Evans, D.T. (2008) unit 2 sexualities and sexual health, sexual health skills course, university of green which. 17. Family planning association (2007) sexual health a public health issue. British journal of school nursing, 2 (3), p .102-106. 18. Gruskin, S.,Ferguson, L.,Malley .J ,O.(2007) ensuring sexual and reproductive health for people living with HIV :an overview of key human rights ,policy and health system issues ,reproductive health matters , 15 (29), p. 4- 26. 19. Health protection agency (2008) spot light infections. [Online] available at:www.hpa .org .UK. 20. Health Protection Agency (2008) All New STI Episodes Seen at GUM Clinics in the UK: 1998 – 2007. London: HPA 21. Ingham, R., Nauserzadeh, S., Stone, N. (2009) SRE conference hand book 4th biennial international sex and relationships conference. 22. Lopez LM et al., Strategies for communicating contraceptive effectiveness, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 2008, Issue 2, No. CD006964. 23. Mayo foundation for medical education and research (2009), mayoclinic.com. 24. Medline plus (2011), US national library service of medicine. 25. Mellor, R. and Williams, D. (2005) sexual health of looked after children and care leavers .amended health and well being team. 26. Miller, D. and Green, J. (2002) the psychology of sexual health.6th ed. Black well science publication: lowa state university press. 27. NICE (2007) One to one Interventions to Reduce the Transmission of Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs) Including HIV, and to reduce the Rate of Under 18 Conceptions, Especially Among Vulnerable and At RiskGroups.London: NICE. 28. Norman, P. et al (2005) Protection motivation theory. Predicting Health Behaviour. Maidenhead: Open University Press 29. Nusbaum, M. and Rosenfeld, J .A. (2004) sexual health across life style ..cambridge university press. 30. Rayburn, N. R.,Jaycox, Z. H .,Mccaffery ,D. E. ,Ulloa, C., Marshall, G. N., Shelly ,G. A., (2007)reactions to dating violence among Latino teenagers :an experiment utilizing the articulated thoughts in simulated situations paradigm, journal of adolescence ,vol,30, p .893-915. 31. Royal collage of nursing (2000), sexuality and sexual health in nursing practice in London, quoting publication, code 009965. 32. Santelli, J.S. (2008) Medical accuracy in sexuality education: ideology and the scientific c process. American Journal of Public Health, 98(10):1786–1792. 33. Society for adolescent medicine (2004) confidential health care for adolescents: position paper of the society for adolescent medicine. (35), p. 80-90. 34. Teitelman, A.M., Bohinski, J.M. and Boente, A. (2009) the social context of sexual health and sexual risk for urban adolescent girls in the United States. Issues in Mental Health Nursing, 30(7), p.460–469. 35. WHO (2007) sexual health, gender and reproductive rights. 36. Widdice, L. E., Cornell, J. L., Wendra, L. Halpern-Felsher, B. L. (2006) ‘Having sex and condom use: potential risks and benefits reported by young sexually inexperienced adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Health, vol. 39 (4), p. 588-595. 37. Wirral Health and Well Being Charter for Wirral Children and Young People (2008). How to cite Promoting Sexual Health, Essay examples

Fundamental Attribution Error free essay sample

The fundamental attribution error is when a person overestimates the influence of another person’s personality over a remark or behavior rather than giving credit to the influence the situation may have on the person. A famous experiment demonstrating this â€Å"error† was conducted by David Napolitan and George Goethals. In this experiment, they instructed a woman to act either rude and critical, or warm and friendly to each person individually. Half of the group was told that the woman would be acting spontaneously, and the other half was let in on the experiment. The result was that the assumptions about her personality did not change even though half the group had known that she was an actor. Each group assumed that because the woman behaved coldly, her personality was so. Even the group who was told that her behavior was situational had still believed that she was warm and friendly because of the way she was acting in the situation. We will write a custom essay sample on Fundamental Attribution Error or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Many times, we find that we commit this error. If we simply looked at a situation from the other person’s point of view, perhaps they were having a bad day; we would then understand their behavior and perhaps even become sympathetic toward them. This relates to me because I tend to make this error a lot throughout the day. Many times, however, it has to do with my situation as well. For example, if I am having a bad day, it makes me harder to sympathize and/or understand when someone else is having a bad day. It’s like I don’t see it. Their bad attitude is just like another notch of bad onto the belt of bad day: another thing that went wrong. However, if I stop to think about why this person is so snappy, I might be able to see that it is not just the type of person that they are, but it is perhaps the situation that they were put in. Fundamental Attribution Error free essay sample The Fundamental Attribution Error (FAE) principle states that man tends to ignore outside pressure and factors when judging the behavior of others. This means that people believe that a certain action or behavior was a cause of an internal motive rather than some influence from external pressure. In simple words, the FAE describes the inability to step inside other people’s shoes. The name FAE was first coined by Ross in 1977 but the idea has been around for a very long time. Polish psychologist Gustav Ichheiser first identified the phenomenon in 1929 and others began to study it in the following years. One of the most classical demonstrations of the FAE was noted in Edward Jones and Victor Harris’ study in 1967. Jones and Harris worked with Yale students in order to prove the behavior of the FAE. The participants were given articles which were either pro-Castro or anti-Castro. They first gave the articles and told them that the writers were writing freely and then they asked them to rate the attitude the writer has towards Fidel Castro between positive and negative. We will write a custom essay sample on Fundamental Attribution Error or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page They repeated the same process with other students but this time told them that the author’s position was assigned in a coin-toss. In the first group, were the articles were â€Å"freely† written, most of the students rated the pro-Castro articles as having a very positive attitude towards Fidel. Unlike the results that Jones and Harris hypothesized, when they reviewed the â€Å"coin-toss† group ratings, students still thought the authors of pro-Castro articles had a positive attitude towards Fidel. They had disregarded the fact that the authors were forced to defend a certain position which could have been different from their own. The experiment effectively demonstrated the FAE and how it occurs almost naturally. The experiment was simple and ethical and showed good results. The experiment was in a manner of a survey so it could be considered a more naturalistic experiment showing realistic behavior. However, rating essays may not be the best example to compare with real life. The students could have been confused by the instructions and believed they had to rate the author’s position in the essay not the author’s true position. However, the results concluded have not conflicted with any of the results from the multiple variations of the experiment and because the FAE occurs pretty frequently in daily life, there is little doubt that the behavior/theory is false.